Globalization and Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Globalization and Environment - Essay Example The treaty signed helps in offloading one commodity and acquired the other. There are different rewards and detriments that are coupled with globalization (studentresearch 1). The concern of this writing will be the outcome of globalization on the environment. Globalization is inescapable in many countries of the sphere. Every country requires offloading its excessive production in a market with the highest return. The country will also want to buy a commodity that is produced scarcely in the country. When buying, the country will choose from the available options and will go to the high quality and low-cost commodities. The final segment of this trade will ensure that the country makes profit. The profit made will be useful for investment, and the invested segment will lead to economic growth and prosperity. During the investment trend, countries have come to invest on what they can produce best. Producing the best commodities leads to specialization. In the course of economic growth and investment, there is a high trend of population growth. The populace growth can be as a result of numerous measures. Investors can immigrate into the country to look for an investment opportunity (Jorgenson and Givens 849). This measure is considered to have a small weight on the escalation of the population. Secondly, there is always a positive population growth in every country resulting from a high birth rate and low mortality rates. The final answer to the equation is always an increase in mortality rates. The growth of persons in the area has some consequence to the environment. An increase in population usually leads to increased pressure to the environmental resources. Reserves like land, water, and forestry are highly affected. The effect makes comes in when must settlement of the increased population. The population will opt to move to the unsettled area that mostly act as a source of the water reserves. When the

Behaviour through a lifespan perspective

Behaviour through a lifespan perspective What are the advantages and disadvantages of viewing behaviour through a lifespan perspective for social work practice? This assignment will look at the advantages and disadvantages a social worker viewing behaviour through a lifespan perspective may encounter. It will look at developmental theories that relate to the chosen service user group, and how, as a social worker, this knowledge would increase understanding of the service user and how this in turn may affect the role of a social worker in practice. The service users age group being explored in this assignment will be older adults aged from 65+. Lifespan development starts from conception and finishes with the death of each individual. During each individuals lifespan there are constant changes and developments taking place, the majority of stages and life changes each individual passes through are due to their common psychological and biological heritage as humans and are shared by all people. Culture and social class, and the individuals environment are all factors that help shape the course of development (Niven. N.1989). There are five main theoretical approaches for lifespan development; these are biological, cognitive, humanist, behaviourist and the psychodynamic approach. Ageing in late life is shaped by the accumulation of life events and the proximity of death; a misperception about ageing is that disability and poor health in later adult life are inevitable (Davies, M, 2002). During each individuals lifespan, they will experience a series of crises and life transitions. Throughout the lifespan there are certain periods or stages where each individual will face a transition from one state to another. These periods have been referred to as life crises by some psychologists, each crisis needing to be resolved in order to progress to the next stage. Each individual proceeds through the stages of development, and the way in which they deal with each crisis in each stage of development shapes their personality (Niven, N, 1989). Other approaches agree that there are certain stages in development that have significance for each individual, but they state that there are also other events that can also shape development these being experienced by some indiv iduals but not all. Retirement is just one of a number of changes that need to be adjusted to in late adulthood, among the others are declining health and physical strength along with physical and sensory impairment which can result in increased dependency on others in late adulthood (Beckett.C.2002). Several physical and cognitive changes also take place in old age (Bee Mitchell, 1984) cited in (Sugarman. L. 1990. Pg 53). The bodily changes that are associated with ageing are summarized in five words- slower, weaker, lesser, fewer and smaller. As ageing occurs experience gained throughout the lifespan helps the individual and they learn to compensate for the many gradual declines that accompany old age. (Corse 1975) cited in (Sugarman. L. 1990. Pg 53) concludes that experience, intelligence, and education can help maintain normal perceptual and sensory functioning. Many changes in appearance take place in old age. Outward appearances begin to show ageing, older peoples skin begins to lose elasticity, which causes lines and wrinkles to appear, hair loss and grey hair may be one of the first signs of ageing, and hearing and eye sight now begin to deteriorate (Windmill.V.1987). Internally the kidneys, lungs, heart and intestinal tract all begin to function less and there may be deterioration of muscles which can literally cause old people to shrink. The reduction of calcium in the bones makes the old person more prone to fractures and brittleness of the bones is also a problem in the older population. Arthritis is one of the more serious health problems affecting older people and for most people these changes may be gradual (Windmill.V.1987). A social worker needs the basic insight of childhood studies, as without them it would be difficult to assess adults on adulthood theories alone. Freud is credited with beginning the psychoanalytic approach. The central assumption of this approach is that behaviour is governed by the unconscious as well as the conscious processes; some are present at birth while others develop over time. (Beckett.C.2002) The second assumption of the psychoanalytic theory is that our personalities have a structure that develops over time. Freud proposed three parts of the personality- the id, the ego, and the superego. Freuds key assumptions were that adults personalities depend on childhood experiences; he assumed children go through five psychosexual stages. The first being the oral stage, the second the anal stage, and the remaining stages being the phallic stage, the latency period and the genital stage. (Beckett.C.2002). When looking at human lifespan development, Erik Eriksons theories can be of use to a social worker. Erikson was a student of Freud; however he had some very different ideas. He thought development was psychosocial and due partly to maturation and partly due to society. Erikson also thought that personality development continued across the lifespan, unlike Freud, who suggest personality development finished in adolescence. Erikson (1980) cited in (Niven, N, 1989, pg 155) proposed eight stages of development which he called developmental crises, these being viewed more as a period of difficulty or dilemma. They are times when individuals face a turning point or transition in their lives often involving a degree of stress associated with having to resolve each dilemma. Not only do these transitions of change affect the individuals behaviour they also affect their family and friends. Eriksons stages are phrased in terms of an opposition between two characteristics and each individual mu st successfully negotiate the task or stage in order to be able to move on to the next one. Erikssons eighth stage (late adulthood) is integrity vs despair; this suggests if the individual has managed to negotiate the previous stages, then the individual will have developed a sense of integrity. This refers to the acceptance of the limitations of life, with the sense of being a part of a larger whole which includes previous generations. It enables the individual to approach death without fear, if one looks back on ones life and sees it as unsatisfactory, despair occurs and a feeling of what if prevails. Erikson suggests that at each transition individuals may need to revisit unresolved issues from previous stages. The main strength of Eriksons theory is that it offers a framework for explaining changes in childhood and adulthood. His work has been criticised in that it represents a set of assumptions instead of precise descriptions of relationships and causes. A disadvantage here is the lack of empirical evidence- this is also another criticism of Eriksons work. The advantages for a social worker using Eriksons theory is that it provides markers for those events in a service users life that may be proving difficult and in using this approach, social workers can highlight the problems that are likely to affect people during specific stages of their life. (Niven. N. 1989). An area of life course development most associated with older adults relates to end of life issues. In the later stages of adulthood the end of life is expected. Death is the end of biological and physical functioning of the body. Factors to be taken in to account for social workers working with service users who have suffered a loss, are gender and cultural differences, as these can affect a social workers understanding of what may count as a loss and what in turn can be done about it (Currer. C 2007). Each individuals reaction to grief and emotional trauma is as unique as a fingerprint. When thinking about bereavement and loss it is useful to look at attachment theory, Bowlbys (1946) cited in (Davies, M, 2002), major work was Attachment and Loss; sadly it is the case for many individuals in later adulthood that there is a price to pay for the benefits of forming attachments. According to Bowlbys attachment theory adults, who as children had secure attachments with their carers, are able to form satisfactory relationships in adult life and this will help them to cope with the pain of bereavement in later life. Bowlbys aim of this originally was to explain the consequences for personality development and how severe disruption of attachments between infant and mother could have negative effects on development. (Butterworth. H. Harris. M. 2002). Adults who did not have secure attachments as children can be identified, according to Howe (1995) cited in (Davies, M, 2002), who suggests that avoidant individuals are the ones who show self reliance. They may display delayed reactions to grief, they attempt to be emotionally self reliant and are wary of forming relationships. This means the loss of someone who is close to them usually triggers defence mechanisms- they may not cry or appear to be upset but are vulnerable to future losses. Exaggerated reactions to grief can be accounted for when the individual has not adjusted or come to terms with earlier loss of an im portant attachment relationship. On the other hand ambivalently attached individuals may experience self-blame and guilt when their partner dies. Where there has been an insecure attachment in childhood (an attachment that does not meet the childs needs- the need for safety and security etc) Bowlby (1998) cited in (Beckett. C. 2006) suggests the anxious child will try to protect themselves against anxious situations. The child uses a variety of psychological manoeuvres and this results in what Bowlby called a faulty working model of themselves and of other relationships. To maintain this model the child will use defensive exclusion to avoid feelings that may threaten the childs already precarious stability. Attachment theory is backed up by empirical evidence. This is beneficial as it can help social workers identify causes from an individuals past and this helps to provide explanations for present behaviours and their ability to deal with change (Beckett. C.2006). Each individuals reaction to grief and emotional trauma are as unique as a fingerprint. When looking at loss it is important to remember that older people may lose friends, abilities, connections and many other things that are important to them. The significance of grief and loss in old age is dismissed by the ageist stereotype that older people will be used to loss because they are at an age where they have experienced lots of it. However the reality is that loss can be cumulative at this age and this results in negative experiences for those whose loss or grief is not recognized or addressed (Thompson.N. et al. 2008). It is important that social workers take a holistic approach to understanding life course development in older adults, as life course is central to any understanding of ageing. A social worker should be aware that an individuals life experiences and life course developments are affected by several factors- these include economic and social aspects, historical, cultural, psychological, and cognitive and physiological influences. (Crawford, K, Walker, J, 2007). All transitions expected or unexpected, sudden and unplanned, present opportunities and challenges for the individuals development and growth. Each individual will have different experiences of transitions even when the life event is common to many in society, each person will respond and adapt to that change in a unique way. (Crawford, K, Walker, J, 2007). There are disadvantages for social workers when viewing individuals through a lifespan perspective as most of the theories being used are Euro centric (European studies) and cannot be applied to all cultures. As a social worker care must be taken when using any of the behavioural approaches as they raise the issues concerning the use of power and oppression. The social worker should not focus too much on narrow behavioural issues at the expense of the larger picture (Beckett.C.2006). It is in a social workers interest not to oppress or discriminate service users but to treat them with unconditional positive regard, not forgetting to treat each service user as an individual with their own opinions and values. The theories used do have limitations as not all individuals or cultures fit the suggested norms and each person develops at a different rate. As a social worker knowing about the different viewpoints from theorists and their suggested viewpoints may enable a better understanding of what problems a service user may be experiencing. When working with service users from any age range, it is important that the social worker does not influence these transitions with their own life experiences. References Beckett.C.(2006).Essential Theory for Social Work Practice. Sage Publications Ltd. London. Beckett.C. (2002). Human Growth Development. Sage Publications Ltd. London. Bee.H. Boyd. H. (2003) 3rd Ed. Lifespan development. Pearson Education Inc. Boston. USA Butterworth. G. and Harris. M. (2002). Developmental Psychology. A Students Handbook. Psychology Press Ltd. Hove. East Sussex. Crawford. K. Walker. J. (2007) 2nd Ed, Social Work and Human Development. Learning Matters Ltd. Exeter. Currer. C. (2007). Loss and Social Work. Learning Matters Ltd. Exeter. Davies. M. (2002) 2nd Ed. The Blackwell Companion to Social Work. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Oxford. Niven. N. (1989) Health Psychology. An Introduction for Nurses other Health Care Professionals. Churchill Livingstone. Sugarman. L. (1990). Lifespan development. Concepts, Theories and Interventions. Routledge. London. Thompson.N. Thompson. S. (2008) The Social work Companion. Palgrave Macmillan. Basingstoke. Windmill.V. (1987). Human Growth Development. Hodder and Stoughton Ltd. Kent.

Cleo 5 to 7 as a New Wave Film Essay -- Movie Film Essays

Cleo 5 to 7 as a New Wave Film Agnes Varda is not only one of the few female directors of new wave cinema; she is also credited as having helped create the genre. Her short film La Point–Courte is considered by some as the first new wave film. Her first full length movie, Cleo 5 to 7 falls within this genre as well. It is the story of a young woman dying of cancer and how she sees the world in the context of time. We follow the singer Cleo as she changes into the woman Flora and as she does so she begins to look at time in a different manner. It is the way time is represented through the camera shots which really make this film part of its new wave genre. The movie begins with a five minute prologue that occurs during the credits in which we receive all the important aspects of the following 90 minute film. We see a fortune teller, or rather a shot of her hands while she turns over the tarot cards that are Cleo’s fortune. This scene uses a multitude of hand shots, contrasting the old woman’s and the young woman’s hands. During the scene there is a jump cut between from the old...

A comparison of “Deirdre” and “On Baile’s Strand” by William Butler Yeats Essay

Deirdre and On Baile’s Strand are two plays by William Butler Yeats that incorporate a tragic vision. Both plays deal with a single tragic moment in the life of an important figure. The plays are similar in structure and style. Yeats interweaves supernatural elements in both plays — the Shape Changers in On Baile’s Strand and the circumstances of Deirdre’s birth and the question of her parentage in Deirdre. The endings of the plays are similar, however, the process of coming to a conclusion in the plays is different. In both of these plays, Yeats gives readers the back ground, information about the characters, and sets the scene at the beginning. In On Baile’s Strand Yeats uses two characters, the Fool and the Blind Man, whose purpose in the play was to describe the situation and the characters involved. In Deirdre Yeats uses a group of three female musicians to set the scenes and give information about the characters. Even with this similarity, however, there is a difference. In On Baile’s Strand the Fool and the Blind man are not directly involved in the action of the play. The exception is at the end of the play when through them, Cuchulain learns that he has killed his only son. The Fool and the Blind Man speak prose while the musicians in Deirdre sing. The three female musicians in Deirdre, however, are spoken to and answer the main characters in the play. In both instances, the Fool and the Blind Man, and the three female musicians have knowledge that the other characters do not. The settings of the plays reflect the main characters. In Deirdre, a tragedy with a female main character, the setting is feminine and action takes place in a guest-house in sereneness of the woods. On Baile’s Strand, a tragedy with a male main character, the setting is masculine and the action takes place in an assembly- house near a harsh sea. No only is On Baile’s Strand masculine in the sense that it takes place near a harsh sea, it is also without fully human women. The one fully human woman, Aoife, that is mentioned in the play, is seen as an evil influence. Conchubar tells Cuchulain: That very woman — For I know well that your are praising Aoife — Now hates you and will leave no subtlety Unknotted that might run into a noose About your throat †¦ (28) However, Cuchulain remembers her as being of â€Å"stone-pale cheek and red-brown hair† and stated that None other had all beauty, queen or lover, Or was so fitted to give birth to kings. (28) With Cuchulain’s vivid descriptions of her, Aoife, although she is not seen in the play, is able to be seen as clearly as the other characters. In both of the plays, the most dramatic part revolves around two things: death and the unknown. In Deirdre, Deirdre pleads with Conchubar to spare her and Naoise’s lives. She is unaware that Naoise is already dead. She did not see Conchubar motion to the â€Å"dark-faced men† who gag Naoise and pull him out of view. Deirdre  pleads with Conchubar, telling him that he will need Naoise some day, but Conchubar only laughs. Deirdre tells him: You will cry out for him someday and say, â€Å"If Naoise were but living† — [she misses Naoise]. Where is he? Where have you sent him? Where is the son of Usna? Where is he, O where is he? (69) This is the most tragic part of the play. Even more tragic than the deaths of Deirdre and Naoise because everyone except Deirdre knows that her pleading is futile. The most dramatic scene in On Baile’s Stand comes after Cuchulain kills the Young Man, not knowing that he is his son. The Blind Man tells Cuchulain that he knows the Young Man’s mother: BLIND MAN: I knew him and his mother there. CUCHULAIN: He was about to speak of her when he died. BLIND MAN: He was a queens son. CUCHULAIN: What queen? what queen? [Seizes Blind Man who  is now sitting upon the bench] Was it Scathach? There were many queens. All the rulers there were  queens. And further into the conversation the Fool tells Cuchulain that the Blind Man said â€Å"the young man was Aoife’s son† and that he had also heard Aoife say that she has had only one lover, and he was the  only one who had defeated her in battle. The Blind Man is the one to say â€Å"it is his own son he has slain.† Another important element found in the play is the idea of treachery or betrayal of trust. In both Deirdre and On Baile’s Strand, treachery results in death. In Deirdre Fergus trusts Conchubar and is betrayed by him; and he betrays others in the play by not divulging knowledge he has. Naoise trusts Fergus, and to some extent Conchubar, and is betrayed. Deirdre trusts Naoise and becomes a victim with him after he is killed. Deirdre betrays Conchubar twice. First when she runs away with Naoise and hides for seven years, and again before taking her own life. Conchubar betrays both Deirdre and Naoise in order the win Deirdre and punish Naoise for stealing her from him and, in turn, this is when he is betrayed by Deirdre and Naoise. Early in the play, after Naoise realized that Conchubar has not sent a messenger to meet with them, Fergus tells Deirdre and Naoise that Conchubar will arrive in person. Naoise responds that â€Å"he cannot break his faith† and â€Å"I have his word and I must take that word.† After seeing a chess-board and remembering the tale of Lugaidh Redstripe and his wife, who both died after being betrayed Naoise speaks: If I had not King Conchubar’s word I’d think That chess-board ominous. (53) Fergus recalls the tall of Lugaidh Redstripe as â€Å"the tale of treachery, A broken promise† that is best forgotten. In On Baile’s Strand, Cuchulain is betrayed by the oath he made to Conchubar when Conchubar calls him on it after the Young Man’s arrival. When Cuchulain refuses to fight the Young Man, Conchubar tells him that â€Å"witchcraft has maddened you.† Cuchulain realizes he had been betrayed after he kills his son. He runs out  to the sea to fight the harsh waves, which he sees as an image of Conchubar. Deirdre and On Baile’s Strand are two plays whose outcome is based on the tragedy upholding honor. Cuchulain’s honor of Conchubar in On Baile’s Strand, and Deirdre’s honor of Naoise and Naoise’s honor of Conchubar in Deirdre. The possession of knowledge the reader has about the events of the play heighten the tragic effects found in both Deirdre and On Baile’s Strand.

Phaedrus Plato Essay

Phaedrus By Plato Written 360 B. C. E Translated by Benjamin Jowett Persons of the Dialogue SOCRATES PHAEDRUS. Scene Under a plane-tree, by the banks of the Ilissus. Socrates. My dear Phaedrus, whence come you, and whither are you going? Phaedrus. I come from Lysias the son of Cephalus, and I am going to take a walk outside the wall, for I have been sitting with him the whole morning; and our common friend Acumenus tells me that it is much more refreshing to walk in the open air than to be shut up in a cloister. Soc. There he is right.Lysias then, I suppose, was in the town? Phaedr. Yes, he was staying with Epicrates, here at the house of Morychus; that house which is near the temple of Olympian Zeus. Soc. And how did he entertain you? Can I be wrong in supposing that Lysias gave you a feast of discourse? Phaedr. You shall hear, if you can spare time to accompany me. Soc. And should I not deem the conversation of you and Lysias â€Å"a thing of higher import,† as I may say in the words of Pindar, â€Å"than any business†? Phaedr. Will you go on? Soc. And will you go on with the narration? Phaedr.My tale, Socrates, is one of your sort, for love was the theme which occupied us -love after a fashion: Lysias has been writing about a fair youth who was being tempted, but not by a lover; and this was the point: he ingeniously proved that the non-lover should be accepted rather than the lover. Soc. O that is noble of him! I wish that he would say the poor man rather than the rich, and the old man rather than the young one; then he would meet the case of me and of many a man; his words would be quite refreshing, and he would be a public benefactor.For my part, I do so long to hear his speech, that if you walk all the way to Megara, and when you have reached the wall come back, as Herodicus recommends, without going in, I will keep you company. Phaedr. What do you mean, my good Socrates? How can you imagine that my unpractised memory can do justice to an e laborate work, which the greatest rhetorician of the age spent a long time in composing. Indeed, I cannot; I would give a great deal if I could. Soc.I believe that I know Phaedrus about as well as I know myself, and I am very sure that the speech of Lysias was repeated to him, not once only, but again and again;-he insisted on hearing it many times over and Lysias was very willing to gratify him; at last, when nothing else would do, he got hold of the book, and looked at what he most wanted to see,-this occupied him during the whole morning; -and then when he was tired with sitting, he went out to take a walk, not until, by the dog, as I believe, he had simply learned by heart the entire discourse, unless it was unusually long, and he went to a place outside the wall that he might practise his lesson.There he saw a certain lover of discourse who had a similar weakness;-he saw and rejoiced; now thought he, â€Å"I shall have a partner in my revels. † And he invited him to come and walk with him. But when the lover of discourse begged that he would repeat the tale, he gave himself airs and said, â€Å"No I cannot,† as if he were indisposed; although, if the hearer had refused, he would sooner or later have been compelled by him to listen whether he would or no. Therefore, Phaedrus, bid him do at once what he will soon do whether bidden or not. Phaedr. I see that you will not let me off until I speak in some fashion or other; verily therefore my best plan is to speak as I best can. Soc. A very true remark, that of yours. Phaedr.I will do as I say; but believe me, Socrates, I did not learn the very words-O no; nevertheless I have a general notion of what he said, and will give you a summary of the points in which the lover differed from the non-lover. Let me begin at the beginning. Soc. Yes, my sweet one; but you must first of all show what you have in your left hand under your cloak, for that roll, as I suspect, is the actual discourse. Now, much as I love you, I would not have you suppose that I am going to have your memory exercised at my expense, if you have Lysias himself here. Phaedr. Enough; I see that I have no hope of practising my art upon you. But if I am to read, where would you please to sit? Soc. Let us turn aside and go by the Ilissus; we will sit down at some quiet spot. Phaedr.I am fortunate in not having my sandals, and as you never have any, I think that we may go along the brook and cool our feet in the water; this will be the easiest way, and at midday and in the summer is far from being unpleasant. Soc. Lead on, and look out for a place in which we can sit down. Phaedr. Do you see the tallest plane-tree in the distance? Soc. Yes. Phaedr. There are shade and gentle breezes, and grass on which we may either sit or lie down. Soc. Move forward. Phaedr. I should like to know, Socrates, whether the place is not somewhere here at which Boreas is said to have carried off Orithyia from the banks of the Ilissus? Soc . Such is the tradition. Phaedr. And is this the exact spot?The little stream is delightfully clear and bright; I can fancy that there might be maidens playing near. Soc. I believe that the spot is not exactly here, but about a quarter of a mile lower down, where you cross to the temple of Artemis, and there is, I think, some sort of an altar of Boreas at the place. Phaedr. I have never noticed it; but I beseech you to tell me, Socrates, do you believe this tale? Soc. The wise are doubtful, and I should not be singular if, like them, I too doubted. I might have a rational explanation that Orithyia was playing with Pharmacia, when a northern gust carried her over the neighbouring rocks; and this being the manner of her death, she was said to have been carried away by Boreas.There is a discrepancy, however, about the locality; according to another version of the story she was taken from Areopagus, and not from this place. Now I quite acknowledge that these allegories are very nice, bu t he is not to be envied who has to invent them; much labour and ingenuity will be required of him; and when he has once begun, he must go on and rehabilitate Hippocentaurs and chimeras dire. Gorgons and winged steeds flow in apace, and numberless other inconceivable and portentous natures. And if he is sceptical about them, and would fain reduce them one after another to the rules of probability, this sort of crude philosophy will take up a great deal of time. Now I have no leisure for such enquiries; shall I tell you why?I must first know myself, as the Delphian inscription says; to be curious about that which is not my concern, while I am still in ignorance of my own self, would be ridiculous. And therefore I bid farewell to all this; the common opinion is enough for me. For, as I was saying, I want to know not about this, but about myself: am I a monster more complicated and swollen with passion than the serpent Typho, or a creature of a gentler and simpler sort, to whom Nature has given a diviner and lowlier destiny? But let me ask you, friend: have we not reached the plane-tree to which you were conducting us? Phaedr. Yes, this is the tree. Soc. By Here, a fair resting-place, full of summer sounds and scents.Here is this lofty and spreading plane-tree, and the agnus cast us high and clustering, in the fullest blossom and the greatest fragrance; and the stream which flows beneath the plane-tree is deliciously cold to the feet. Judging from the ornaments and images, this must be a spot sacred to Achelous and the Nymphs. How delightful is the breeze:-so very sweet; and there is a sound in the air shrill and summerlike which makes answer to the chorus of the cicadae. But the greatest charm of all is the grass, like a pillow gently sloping to the head. My dear Phaedrus, you have been an admirable guide. Phaedr. What an incomprehensible being you are, Socrates: when you are in the country, as you say, you really are like some stranger who is led about by a gui de. Do you ever cross the border? I rather think that you never venture even outside the gates. Soc.Very true, my good friend; and I hope that you will excuse me when you hear the reason, which is, that I am a lover of knowledge, and the men who dwell in the city are my teachers, and not the trees or the country. Though I do indeed believe that you have found a spell with which to draw me out of the city into the country, like a hungry cow before whom a bough or a bunch of fruit is waved. For only hold up before me in like manner a book, and you may lead me all round Attica, and over the wide world. And now having arrived, I intend to lie down, and do you choose any posture in which you can read best. Begin. Phaedr. Listen. You know how matters stand with me; and how, as I conceive, this affair may be arranged for the advantage of both of us.And I maintain that I ought not to fail in my suit, because I am not your lover: for lovers repent of the kindnesses which they have shown when their passion ceases, but to the non-lovers who are free and not under any compulsion, no time of repentance ever comes; for they confer their benefits according to the measure of their ability, in the way which is most conducive to their own interest. Then again, lovers consider how by reason of their love they have neglected their own concerns and rendered service to others: and when to these benefits conferred they add on the troubles which they have endured, they think that they have long ago made to the beloved a very ample return. But the non-lover has no such tormenting recollections; he has never neglected his affairs or quarrelled with his relations; he has no troubles to add up or excuse to invent; and being well rid of all these evils, why should he not freely do what will gratify the beloved?If you say that the lover is more to be esteemed, because his love is thought to be greater; for he is willing to say and do what is hateful to other men, in order to please his bel oved;-that, if true, is only a proof that he will prefer any future love to his present, and will injure his old love at the pleasure of the new. And how, in a matter of such infinite importance, can a man be right in trusting himself to one who is afflicted with a malady which no experienced person would attempt to cure, for the patient himself admits that he is not in his right mind, and acknowledges that he is wrong in his mind, but says that he is unable to control himself? And if he came to his right mind, would he ever imagine that the desires were good which he conceived when in his wrong mind?Once more, there are many more non-lovers than lovers; and if you choose the best of the lovers, you will not have many to choose from; but if from the non-lovers, the choice will be larger, and you will be far more likely to find among them a person who is worthy of your friendship. If public opinion be your dread, and you would avoid reproach, in all probability the lover, who is alwa ys thinking that other men are as emulous of him as he is of them, will boast to some one of his successes, and make a show of them openly in the pride of his heart;he wants others to know that his labour has not been lost; but the non-lover is more his own master, and is desirous of solid good, and not of the opinion of mankind.Again, the lover may be generally noted or seen following the beloved (this is his regular occupation), and whenever they are observed to exchange two words they are supposed to meet about some affair of love either past or in contemplation; but when non-lovers meet, no one asks the reason why, because people know that talking to another is natural, whether friendship or mere pleasure be the motive. Once more, if you fear the fickleness of friendship, consider that in any other case a quarrel might be a mutual calamity; but now, when you have given up what is most precious to you, you will be the greater loser, and therefore, you will have more reason in bei ng afraid of the lover, for his vexations are many, and he is always fancying that every one is leagued against him. Wherefore lso he debars his beloved from society; he will not have you intimate with the wealthy, lest they should exceed him in wealth, or with men of education, lest they should be his superiors in understanding; and he is equally afraid of anybody's influence who has any other advantage over himself. If he can persuade you to break with them, you are left without friend in the world; or if, out of a regard to your own interest, you have more sense than to comply with his desire, you will have to quarrel with him. But those who are non-lovers, and whose success in love is the reward of their merit, will not be jealous of the companions of their beloved, and will rather hate those who refuse to be his associates, thinking that their favourite is slighted by the latter and benefited by the former; for more love than hatred may be expected to come to him out of his fri endship with others.Many lovers too have loved the person of a youth before they knew his character or his belongings; so that when their passion has passed away, there is no knowing whether they will continue to be his friends; whereas, in the case of non-lovers who were always friends, the friendship is not lessened by the favours granted; but the recollection of these remains with them, and is an earnest of good things to come. Further, I say that you are likely to be improved by me, whereas the lover will spoil you. For they praise your words and actions in a wrong way; partly, because they are afraid of offending you, and also, their judgment is weakened by passion.Such are the feats which love exhibits; he makes things painful to the disappointed which give no pain to others; he compels the successful lover to praise what ought not to give him pleasure, and therefore the beloved is to be pitied rather than envied. But if you listen to me, in the first place, I, in my intercour se with you, shall not merely regard present enjoyment, but also future advantage, being not mastered by love, but my own master; nor for small causes taking violent dislikes, but even when the cause is great, slowly laying up little wrathunintentional offences I shall forgive, and intentional ones I shall try to prevent; and these are the marks of a friendship which will last. Do you think that a lover only can be a firm friend? eflect:-if this were true, we should set small value on sons, or fathers, or mothers; nor should we ever have loyal friends, for our love of them arises not from passion, but from other associations. Further, if we ought to shower favours on those who are the most eager suitors,-on that principle, we ought always to do good, not to the most virtuous, but to the most needy; for they are the persons who will be most relieved, and will therefore be the most grateful; and when you make a feast you should invite not your friend, but the beggar and the empty soul ; for they will love you, and attend you, and come about your doors, and will be the best pleased, and the most grateful, and will invoke many a blessing on your head.Yet surely you ought not to be granting favours to those who besiege you with prayer, but to those who are best able to reward you; nor to the lover only, but to those who are worthy of love; nor to those who will enjoy the bloom of your youth, but to those who will share their possessions with you in age; nor to those who, having succeeded, will glory in their success to others, but to those who will be modest and tell no tales; nor to those who care about you for a moment only, but to those who will continue your friends through life; nor to those who, when their passion is over, will pick a quarrel with you, but rather to those who, when the charm of youth has left you, will show their own virtue.Remember what I have said; and consider yet this further point: friends admonish the lover under the idea that his way of life is bad, but no one of his kindred ever yet censured the non-lover, or thought that he was ill-advised about his own interests. â€Å"Perhaps you will ask me whether I propose that you should indulge every non-lover. To which I reply that not even the lover would advise you to indulge all lovers, for the indiscriminate favour is less esteemed by the rational recipient, and less easily hidden by him who would escape the censure of the world. Now love ought to be for the advantage of both parties, and for the injury of neither. â€Å"I believe that I have said enough; but if there is anything more which you desire or which in your opinion needs to be supplied, ask and I will answer. † Now, Socrates, what do you think?Is not the discourse excellent, more especially in the matter of the language? Soc. Yes, quite admirable; the effect on me was ravishing. And this I owe to you, Phaedrus, for I observed you while reading to be in an ecstasy, and thinking that you are more exp erienced in these matters than I am, I followed your example, and, like you, my divine darling, I became inspired with a phrenzy. Phaedr. Indeed, you are pleased to be merry. Soc. Do you mean that I am not in earnest? Phaedr. Now don't talk in that way, Socrates, but let me have your real opinion; I adjure you, by Zeus, the god of friendship, to tell me whether you think that any Hellene could have said more or spoken better on the same subject.Soc. Well, but are you and I expected to praise the sentiments of the author, or only the clearness, and roundness, and finish, and tournure of the language? As to the first I willingly submit to your better judgment, for I am not worthy to form an opinion, having only attended to the rhetorical manner; and I was doubting whether this could have been defended even by Lysias himself; I thought, though I speak under correction, that he repeated himself two or three times, either from want of words or from want of pains; and also, he appeared to me ostentatiously to exult in showing how well he could say the same thing in two or three ways. Phaedr.Nonsense, Socrates; what you call repetition was the especial merit of the speech; for he omitted no topic of which the subject rightly allowed, and I do not think that any one could have spoken better or more exhaustively. Soc. There I cannot go along with you. Ancient sages, men and women, who have spoken and written of these things, would rise up in judgment against me, if out of complaisance I assented to you. Phaedr. Who are they, and where did you hear anything better than this? Soc. I am sure that I must have heard; but at this moment I do not remember from whom; perhaps from Sappho the fair, or Anacreon the wise; or, possibly, from a prose writer. Why do I say so? Why, because I perceive that my bosom is full, and that I could make another speech as good as that of Lysias, and different.Now I am certain that this is not an invention of my own, who am well aware that I kno w nothing, and therefore I can only infer that I have been filled through the cars, like a pitcher, from the waters of another, though I have actually forgotten in my stupidity who was my informant. Phaedr. That is grand:-but never mind where you beard the discourse or from whom; let that be a mystery not to be divulged even at my earnest desire. Only, as you say, promise to make another and better oration, equal in length and entirely new, on the same subject; and I, like the nine Archons, will promise to set up a golden image at Delphi, not only of myself, but of you, and as large as life. Soc.You are a dear golden ass if you suppose me to mean that Lysias has altogether missed the mark, and that I can make a speech from which all his arguments are to be excluded. The worst of authors will say something which is to the point. Who, for example, could speak on this thesis of yours without praising the discretion of the nonlover and blaming the indiscretion of the lover? These are th e commonplaces of the subject which must come in (for what else is there to be said? ) and must be allowed and excused; the only merit is in the arrangement of them, for there can be none in the invention; but when you leave the commonplaces, then there may be some originality. Phaedr.I admit that there is reason in what you say, and I too will be reasonable, and will allow you to start with the premiss that the lover is more disordered in his wits than the non-lover; if in what remains you make a longer and better speech than Lysias, and use other arguments, then I say again, that a statue you shall have of beaten gold, and take your place by the colossal offerings of the Cypselids at Olympia. Soc. How profoundly in earnest is the lover, because to tease him I lay a finger upon his love! And so, Phaedrus, you really imagine that I am going to improve upon the ingenuity of Lysias? Phaedr. There I have you as you had me, and you must just speak â€Å"as you best can. † Do not let us exchange â€Å"tu quoque† as in a farce, or compel me to say to you as you said to me, â€Å"I know Socrates as well as I know myself, and he was wanting to, speak, but he gave himself airs. Rather I would have you consider that from this place we stir not until you have unbosomed yourself of the speech; for here are we all alone, and I am stronger, remember, and younger than you-Wherefore perpend, and do not compel me to use violence. Soc. But, my sweet Phaedrus, how ridiculous it would be of me to compete with Lysias in an extempore speech! He is a master in his art and I am an untaught man. Phaedr. You see how matters stand; and therefore let there be no more pretences; for, indeed, I know the word that is irresistible. Soc. Then don't say it. Phaedr. Yes, but I will; and my word shall be an oath. â€Å"I say, or rather swear†-but what god will be witness of my oath? â€Å"By this plane-tree I swear, that unless you repeat the discourse here in the face of this very plane-tree, I will never tell you another; never let you have word of another! † Soc. Villain I am conquered; the poor lover of discourse has no more to say. Phaedr. Then why are you still at your tricks? Soc. I am not going to play tricks now that you have taken the oath, for I cannot allow myself to be starved. Phaedr. Proceed. Soc. Shall I tell you what I will do? Phaedr. What? Soc. I will veil my face and gallop through the discourse as fast as I can, for if I see you I shall feel ashamed and not know what to say. Phaedr. Only go on and you may do anything else which you please. Soc.Come, O ye Muses, melodious, as ye are called, whether you have received this name from the character of your strains, or because the Melians are a musical race, help, O help me in the tale which my good friend here desires me to rehearse, in order that his friend whom he always deemed wise may seem to him to be wiser than ever. Once upon a time there was a fair boy, or, more properly speaking, a youth; he was very fair and had a great many lovers; and there was one special cunning one, who had persuaded the youth that he did not love him, but he really loved him all the same; and one day when he was paying his addresses to him, he used this very argument-that he ought to accept the non-lover rather than the lover; his words were as follows:†All good counsel begins in the same way; a man should know what he is advising about, or his counsel will all come to nought.But people imagine that they know about the nature of things, when they don't know about them, and, not having come to an understanding at first because they think that they know, they end, as might be expected, in contradicting one another and themselves. Now you and I must not be guilty of this fundamental error which we condemn in others; but as our question is whether the lover or non-lover is to be preferred, let us first of all agree in defining the nature and power of love, and then, keepi ng our eyes upon the definition and to this appealing, let us further enquire whether love brings advantage or disadvantage. â€Å"Every one sees that love is a desire, and we know also that non-lovers desire the beautiful and good. Now in what way is the lover to be distinguished from the non-lover?Let us note that in every one of us there are two guiding and ruling principles which lead us whither they will; one is the natural desire of pleasure, the other is an acquired opinion which aspires after the best; and these two are sometimes in harmony and then again at war, and sometimes the one, sometimes the other conquers. When opinion by the help of reason leads us to the best, the conquering principle is called temperance; but when desire, which is devoid of reason, rules in us and drags us to pleasure, that power of misrule is called excess. Now excess has many names, and many members, and many forms, and any of these forms when very marked gives a name, neither honourable nor c reditable, to the bearer of the name.The desire of eating, for example, which gets the better of the higher reason and the other desires, is called gluttony, and he who is possessed by it is called a glutton-I the tyrannical desire of drink, which inclines the possessor of the desire to drink, has a name which is only too obvious, and there can be as little doubt by what name any other appetite of the same family would be called;-it will be the name of that which happens to be eluminant. And now I think that you will perceive the drift of my discourse; but as every spoken word is in a manner plainer than the unspoken, I had better say further that the irrational desire which overcomes the tendency of opinion towards right, and is led away to the enjoyment of beauty, and especially of personal beauty, by the desires which are her own kindred-that supreme desire, I say, which by leading conquers and by the force of passion is reinforced, from this very force, receiving a name, is call ed love. And now, dear Phaedrus, I shall pause for an instant to ask whether you do not think me, as I appear to myself, inspired? Phaedr. Yes, Socrates, you seem to have a very unusual flow of words. Soc. Listen to me, then, in silence; for surely the place is holy; so that you must not wonder, if, as I proceed, I appear to be in a divine fury, for already I am getting into dithyrambics. Phaedr. Nothing can be truer. Soc. The responsibility rests with you. But hear what follows, and Perhaps the fit may be averted; all is in their hands above. I will go on talking to my youth. Listen: Thus, my friend, we have declared and defined the nature of the subject.Keeping the definition in view, let us now enquire what advantage or disadvantage is likely to ensue from the lover or the non-lover to him who accepts their advances. He who is the victim of his passions and the slave of pleasure will of course desire to make his beloved as agreeable to himself as possible. Now to him who has a mi nd discased anything is agreeable which is not opposed to him, but that which is equal or superior is hateful to him, and therefore the lover Will not brook any superiority or equality on the part of his beloved; he is always employed in reducing him to inferiority. And the ignorant is the inferior of the wise, the coward of the brave, the slow of speech of the speaker, the dull of the clever.These, and not these only, are the mental defects of the beloved;-defects which, when implanted by nature, are necessarily a delight to the lover, and when not implanted, he must contrive to implant them in him, if he would not be deprived of his fleeting joy. And therefore he cannot help being jealous, and will debar his beloved from the advantages of society which would make a man of him, and especially from that society which would have given him wisdom, and thereby he cannot fail to do him great harm. That is to say, in his excessive fear lest he should come to be despised in his eyes he wi ll be compelled to banish from him divine philosophy; and there is no greater injury which he can inflict upon him than this. He will contrive that his beloved shall be wholly ignorant, and in everything shall look to him; he is to be the delight of the lover's heart, and a curse to himself.Verily, a lover is a profitable guardian and associate for him in all that relates to his mind. Let us next see how his master, whose law of life is pleasure and not good, will keep and train the body of his servant. Will he not choose a beloved who is delicate rather than sturdy and strong? One brought up in shady bowers and not in the bright sun, a stranger to manly exercises and the sweat of toil, accustomed only to a soft and luxurious diet, instead of the hues of health having the colours of paint and ornament, and the rest of a piece? -such a life as any one can imagine and which I need not detail at length. But I may sum up all that I have to say in a word, and pass on.Such a person in war , or in any of the great crises of life, will be the anxiety of his friends and also of his lover, and certainly not the terror of his enemies; which nobody can deny. And now let us tell what advantage or disadvantage the beloved will receive from the guardianship and society of his lover in the matter of his property; this is the next point to be considered. The lover will be the first to see what, indeed, will be sufficiently evident to all men, that he desires above all things to deprive his beloved of his dearest and best and holiest possessions, father, mother, kindred, friends, of all whom he thinks may be hinderers or reprovers of their most sweet converse; he will even cast a jealous eye upon his gold and silver or other property, ecause these make him a less easy prey, and when caught less manageable; hence he is of necessity displeased at his possession of them and rejoices at their loss; and he would like him to be wifeless, childless, homeless, as well; and the longer th e better, for the longer he is all this, the longer he will enjoy him. There are some soft of animals, such as flatterers, who are dangerous and, mischievous enough, and yet nature has mingled a temporary pleasure and grace in their composition. You may say that a courtesan is hurtful, and disapprove of such creatures and their practices, and yet for the time they are very pleasant. But the lover is not only hurtful to his love; he is also an extremely disagreeable companion.The old proverb says that â€Å"birds of a feather flock together†; I suppose that equality of years inclines them to the same pleasures, and similarity begets friendship; yet you may have more than enough even of this; and verily constraint is always said to be grievous. Now the lover is not only unlike his beloved, but he forces himself upon him. For he is old and his love is young, and neither day nor night will he leave him if he can help; necessity and the sting of desire drive him on, and allure him with the pleasure which he receives from seeing, hearing, touching, perceiving him in every way. And therefore he is delighted to fasten upon him and to minister to him.But what pleasure or consolation can the beloved be receiving all this time? Must he not feel the extremity of disgust when he looks at an old shrivelled face and the remainder to match, which even in a description is disagreeable, and quite detestable when he is forced into daily contact with his lover; moreover he is jealously watched and guarded against everything and everybody, and has to hear misplaced and exaggerated praises of himself, and censures equally inappropriate, which are intolerable when the man is sober, and, besides being intolerable, are published all over the world in all their indelicacy and wearisomeness when he is drunk.And not only while his love continues is he mischievous and unpleasant, but when his love ceases he becomes a perfidious enemy of him on whom he showered his oaths and prayers and promises, and yet could hardly prevail upon him to tolerate the tedium of his company even from motives of interest. The hour of payment arrives, and now he is the servant of another master; instead of love and infatuation, wisdom and temperance are his bosom's lords; but the beloved has not discovered the change which has taken place in him, when he asks for a return and recalls to his recollection former sayings and doings; he believes himself to be speaking to the same person, and the other, not having the courage to confess the truth, and not knowing how to fulfil the oaths and promises which he made when under the dominion of folly, and having now grown wise and temperate, does not want to do as he did or to be as he was before.And so he runs away and is constrained to be a defaulter; the oyster-shell has fallen with the other side uppermost-he changes pursuit into flight, while the other is compelled to follow him with passion and imprecation not knowing that he ought nev er from the first to have accepted a demented lover instead of a sensible non-lover; and that in making such a choice he was giving himself up to a faithless, morose, envious, disagreeable being, hurtful to his estate, hurtful to his bodily health, and still more hurtful to the cultivation of his mind, than which there neither is nor ever will be anything more honoured in the eyes both of gods and men. Consider this, fair youth, and know that in the friendship of the lover there is no real kindness; he has an appetite and wants to feed upon you: As wolves love lambs so lovers love their loves. But I told you so, I am speaking in verse, and therefore I had better make an end; enough. Phaedr. I thought that you were only halfway and were going to make a similar speech about all the advantages of accepting the non-lover.Why do you not proceed? Soc. Does not your simplicity observe that I have got out of dithyrambics into heroics, when only uttering a censure on the lover? And if I am t o add the praises of the nonlover, what will become of me? Do you not perceive that I am already overtaken by the Nymphs to whom you have mischievously exposed me? And therefore will only add that the non-lover has all the advantages in which the lover is accused of being deficient. And now I will say no more; there has been enough of both of them. Leaving the tale to its fate, I will cross the river and make the best of my way home, lest a worse thing be inflicted upon me by you. Phaedr.Not yet, Socrates; not until the heat of the day has passed; do you not see that the hour is almost noon? there is the midday sun standing still, as people say, in the meridian. Let us rather stay and talk over what has been said, and then return in the cool. Soc. Your love of discourse, Phaedrus, is superhuman, simply marvellous, and I do not believe that there is any one of your contemporaries who has either made or in one way or another has compelled others to make an equal number of speeches. I would except Simmias the Theban, but all the rest are far behind you. And now, I do verily believe that you have been the cause of another. Phaedr.That is good news. But what do you mean? Soc. I mean to say that as I was about to cross the stream the usual sign was given to me,that sign which always forbids, but never bids, me to do anything which I am going to do; and I thought that I heard a voice saying in my car that I had been guilty of impiety, and. that I must not go away until I had made an atonement. Now I am a diviner, though not a very good one, but I have enough religion for my own use, as you might say of a bad writer-his writing is good enough for him; and I am beginning to see that I was in error. O my friend, how prophetic is the human soul! At the time I had a sort of misgiving, and, ike Ibycus, â€Å"I was troubled; I feared that I might be buying honour from men at the price of sinning against the gods. † Now I recognize my error. Phaedr. What error? Soc. T hat was a dreadful speech which you brought with you, and you made me utter one as bad. Phaedr. How so? Soc. It was foolish, I say,-to a certain extent, impious; can anything be more dreadful? Phaedr. Nothing, if the speech was really such as you describe. Soc. Well, and is not Eros the son of Aphrodite, and a god? Phaedr. So men say. Soc. But that was not acknowledged by Lysias in his speech, nor by you in that other speech which you by a charm drew from my lips. For if love be, as he surely is, a divinity, he cannot be evil.Yet this was the error of both the speeches. There was also a simplicity about them which was refreshing; having no truth or honesty in them, nevertheless they pretended to be something, hoping to succeed in deceiving the manikins of earth and gain celebrity among them. Wherefore I must have a purgation. And I bethink me of an ancient purgation of mythological error which was devised, not by Homer, for he never had the wit to discover why he was blind, but by S tesichorus, who was a philosopher and knew the reason why; and therefore, when he lost his eyes, for that was the penalty which was inflicted upon him for reviling the lovely Helen, he at once purged himself.And the purgation was a recantation, which began thus,False is that word of mine-the truth is that thou didst not embark in ships, nor ever go to the walls of Troy; and when he had completed his poem, which is called â€Å"the recantation,† immediately his sight returned to him. Now I will be wiser than either Stesichorus or Homer, in that I am going to make my recantation for reviling love before I suffer; and this I will attempt, not as before, veiled and ashamed, but with forehead bold and bare. Phaedr. Nothing could be more agreeable to me than to hear you say so. Soc. Only think, my good Phaedrus, what an utter want of delicacy was shown in the two discourses; I mean, in my own and in that which you recited out of the book.Would not any one who was himself of a noble and gentle nature, and who loved or ever had loved a nature like his own, when we tell of the petty causes of lovers' jealousies, and of their exceeding animosities, and of the injuries which they do to their beloved, have imagined that our ideas of love were taken from some haunt of sailors to which good manners were unknown-he would certainly never have admitted the justice of our censure? Phaedr. I dare say not, Socrates. Soc. Therefore, because I blush at the thought of this person, and also because I am afraid of Love himself, I desire to wash the brine out of my ears with water from the spring; and I would counsel Lysias not to delay, but to write another discourse, which shall prove that ceteris paribus the lover ought to be accepted rather than the non-lover.Phaedr. Be assured that he shall. You shall speak the praises of the lover, and Lysias shall be compelled by me to write another discourse on the same theme. Soc. You will be true to your nature in that, and therefore I believe you. Phaedr. Speak, and fear not. Soc. But where is the fair youth whom I was addressing before, and who ought to listen now; lest, if he hear me not, he should accept a non-lover before he knows what he is doing? Phaedr. He is close at hand, and always at your service. Soc. Know then, fair youth, that the former discourse was the word of Phaedrus, the son of Vain Man, who dwells in the city of Myrrhina (Myrrhinusius).And this which I am about to utter is the recantation of Stesichorus the son of Godly Man (Euphemus), who comes from the town of Desire (Himera), and is to the following effect: â€Å"I told a lie when I said† that the beloved ought to accept the non-lover when he might have the lover, because the one is sane, and the other mad. It might be so if madness were simply an evil; but there is also a madness which is a divine gift, and the source of the chiefest blessings granted to men. For prophecy is a madness, and the prophetess at Delphi and the priestes ses at Dodona when out of their senses have conferred great benefits on Hellas, both in public and private life, but when in their senses few or none.And I might also tell you how the Sibyl and other inspired persons have given to many an one many an intimation of the future which has saved them from falling. But it would be tedious to speak of what every one knows. There will be more reason in appealing to the ancient inventors of names, who would never have connected prophecy (mantike) which foretells the future and is the noblest of arts, with madness (manike), or called them both by the same name, if they had deemed madness to be a disgrace or dishonour;-they must have thought that there was an inspired madness which was a noble thing; for the two words, mantike and manike, are really the same, and the letter t is only a modern and tasteless insertion.And this is confirmed by the name which was given by them to the rational investigation of futurity, whether made by the help of birds or of other signs-this, for as much as it is an art which supplies from the reasoning faculty mind (nous) and information (istoria) to human thought (oiesis) they originally termed oionoistike, but the word has been lately altered and made sonorous by the modern introduction of the letter Omega (oionoistike and oionistike), and in proportion prophecy (mantike) is more perfect and august than augury, both in name and fact, in the same proportion, as the ancients testify, is madness superior to a sane mind (sophrosune) for the one is only of human, but the other of divine origin.Again, where plagues and mightiest woes have bred in certain families, owing to some ancient blood-guiltiness, there madness has entered with holy prayers and rites, and by inspired utterances found a way of deliverance for those who are in need; and he who has part in this gift, and is truly possessed and duly out of his mind, is by the use of purifications and mysteries made whole and except from evil, future as well as present, and has a release from the calamity which was afflicting him. The third kind is the madness of those who are possessed by the Muses; which taking hold of a delicate and virgin soul, and there inspiring frenzy, awakens lyrical and all other numbers; with these adorning the myriad actions of ancient heroes for the instruction of posterity. But he who, having no touch of the Muses' madness in his soul, comes to the door and thinks that he will get into the temple by the help of art-he, I say, and his poetry are not admitted; the sane man disappears and is nowhere when he enters into rivalry with the madman.I might tell of many other noble deeds which have sprung from inspired madness. And therefore, let no one frighten or flutter us by saying that the temperate friend is to be chosen rather than the inspired, but let him further show that love is not sent by the gods for any good to lover or beloved; if he can do so we will allow him to carry off the palm. A nd we, on our part, will prove in answer to him that the madness of love is the greatest of heaven's blessings, and the proof shall be one which the wise will receive, and the witling disbelieve. But first of all, let us view the affections and actions of the soul divine and human, and try to ascertain the truth about them.The beginning of our proof is as follows:The soul through all her being is immortal, for that which is ever in motion is immortal; but that which moves another and is moved by another, in ceasing to move ceases also to live. Only the self-moving, never leaving self, never ceases to move, and is the fountain and beginning of motion to all that moves besides. Now, the beginning is unbegotten, for that which is begotten has a beginning; but the beginning is begotten of nothing, for if it were begotten of something, then the begotten would not come from a beginning. But if unbegotten, it must also be indestructible; for if beginning were destroyed, there could be no b eginning out of anything, nor anything out of a beginning; and all things must have a beginning.And therefore the self-moving is the beginning of motion; and this can neither be destroyed nor begotten, else the whole heavens and all creation would collapse and stand still, and never again have motion or birth. But if the self-moving is proved to be immortal, he who affirms that self-motion is the very idea and essence of the soul will not be put to confusion. For the body which is moved from without is soulless; but that which is moved from within has a soul, for such is the nature of the soul. But if this be true, must not the soul be the self-moving, and therefore of necessity unbegotten and immortal? Enough of the soul's immortality.Of the nature of the soul, though her true form be ever a theme of large and more than mortal discourse, let me speak briefly, and in a figure. And let the figure be composite-a pair of winged horses and a charioteer. Now the winged horses and the cha rioteers of the gods are all of them noble and of noble descent, but those of other races are mixed; the human charioteer drives his in a pair; and one of them is noble and of noble breed, and the other is ignoble and of ignoble breed; and the driving of them of necessity gives a great deal of trouble to him. I will endeavour to explain to you in what way the mortal differs from the immortal creature.The soul in her totality has the care of inanimate being everywhere, and traverses the whole heaven in divers forms appearing–when perfect and fully winged she soars upward, and orders the whole world; whereas the imperfect soul, losing her wings and drooping in her flight at last settles on the solid ground-there, finding a home, she receives an earthly frame which appears to be self-moved, but is really moved by her power; and this composition of soul and body is called a living and mortal creature. For immortal no such union can be reasonably believed to be; although fancy, no t having seen nor surely known the nature of God, may imagine an immortal creature having both a body and also a soul which are united throughout all time. Let that, however, be as God wills, and be spoken of acceptably to him. And now let us ask the reason why the soul loses her wings!The wing is the corporeal element which is most akin to the divine, and which by nature tends to soar aloft and carry that which gravitates downwards into the upper region, which is the habitation of the gods. The divine is beauty, wisdom, goodness, and the like; and by these the wing of the soul is nourished, and grows apace; but when fed upon evil and foulness and the opposite of good, wastes and falls away. Zeus, the mighty lord, holding the reins of a winged chariot, leads the way in heaven, ordering all and taking care of all; and there follows him the array of gods and demigods, marshalled in eleven bands; Hestia alone abides at home in the house of heaven; of the rest they who are reckoned amon g the princely twelve march in their appointed order.They see many blessed sights in the inner heaven, and there are many ways to and fro, along which the blessed gods are passing, every one doing his own work; he may follow who will and can, for jealousy has no place in the celestial choir. But when they go to banquet and festival, then they move up the steep to the top of the vault of heaven. The chariots of the gods in even poise, obeying the rein, glide rapidly; but the others labour, for the vicious steed goes heavily, weighing down the charioteer to the earth when his steed has not been thoroughly trained:-and this is the hour of agony and extremest conflict for the soul. For the immortals, when they are at the end of their course, go forth and stand upon the outside of heaven, and the revolution of the spheres carries them round, and they behold the things beyond.But of the heaven which is above the heavens, what earthly poet ever did or ever will sing worthily? It is such as I will describe; for I must dare to speak the truth, when truth is my theme. There abides the very being with which true knowledge is concerned; the colourless, formless, intangible essence, visible only to mind, the pilot of the soul. The divine intelligence, being nurtured upon mind and pure knowledge, and the intelligence of every soul which is capable of receiving the food proper to it, rejoices at beholding reality, and once more gazing upon truth, is replenished and made glad, until the revolution of the worlds brings her round again to the same place.In the revolution she beholds justice, and temperance, and knowledge absolute, not in the form of generation or of relation, which men call existence, but knowledge absolute in existence absolute; and beholding the other true existences in like manner, and feasting upon them, she passes down into the interior of the heavens and returns home; and there the charioteer putting up his horses at the stall, gives them ambrosia to eat and nectar to drink. Such is the life of the gods; but of other souls, that which follows God best and is likest to him lifts the head of the charioteer into the outer world, and is carried round in the revolution, troubled indeed by the steeds, and with difficulty beholding true being; while another only rises and falls, and sees, and again fails to see by reason of the unruliness of the steeds.The rest of the souls are also longing after the upper world and they all follow, but not being strong enough they are carried round below the surface, plunging, treading on one another, each striving to be first; and there is confusion and perspiration and the extremity of effort; and many of them are lamed or have their wings broken through the ill-driving of the charioteers; and all of them after a fruitless toil, not having attained to the mysteries of true being, go away, and feed upon opinion. The reason why the souls exhibit this exceeding eagerness to behold the plain of truth is tha t pasturage is found there, which is suited to the highest part of the soul; and the wing on which the soul soars is nourished with this. And there is a law of Destiny, that the soul which attains any vision of truth in company with a god is preserved from harm until the next period, and if attaining always is always unharmed.But when she is unable to follow, and fails to behold the truth, and through some ill-hap sinks beneath the double load of forgetfulness and vice, and her wings fall from her and she drops to the ground, then the law ordains that this soul shall at her first birth pass, not into any other animal, but only into man; and the soul which has seen most of truth shall come to the birth as a philosopher, or artist, or some musical and loving nature; that which has seen truth in the second degree shall be some righteous king or warrior chief; the soul which is of the third class shall be a politician, or economist, or trader; the fourth shall be lover of gymnastic toil s, or a physician; the fifth shall lead the life of a prophet or hierophant; to the sixth the character of poet or some other imitative artist will be assigned; to the seventh the life of an artisan or husbandman; to the eighth that of a sophist or demagogue; to the ninth that of a tyrantall these are states of probation, in which he who does righteously improves, and he who does unrighteously, improves, and he who does unrighteously, deteriorates his lot. Ten thousand years must elapse before the soul of each one can return to the place from whence she came, for she cannot grow her wings in less; only the soul of a philosopher, guileless and true, or the soul of a lover, who is not devoid of philosophy, may acquire wings in the third of the recurring periods of a thousand years; he is distinguished from the ordinary good man who gains wings in three thousand years:-and they who choose this life three times in succession have wings given them, and go away at the end of three thousan d years.But the others receive judgment when they have completed their first life, and after the judgment they go, some of them to the houses of correction which are under the earth, and are punished; others to some place in heaven whither they are lightly borne by justice, and there they live in a manner worthy of the life which they led here when in the form of men. And at the end of the first thousand years the good souls and also the evil souls both come to draw lots and choose their second life, and they may take any which they please. The soul of a man may pass into the life of a beast, or from the beast return again into the man. But the soul which has never seen the truth will not pass into the human form. For a man must have intelligence of universals, and be able to proceed rom the many particulars of sense to one conception of reason;-this is the recollection of those things which our soul once saw while following God-when regardless of that which we now call being she ra ised her head up towards the true being. And therefore the mind of the philosopher alone has wings; and this is just, for he is always, according to the measure of his abilities, clinging in recollection to those things in which God abides, and in beholding which He is what He is. And he who employs aright these memories is ever being initiated into perfect mysteries and alone becomes truly perfect. But, as he forgets earthly interests and is rapt in the divine, the vulgar deem him mad, and rebuke him; they do not see that he is inspired.Thus far I have been speaking of the fourth and last kind of madness, which is imputed to him who, when he sees the beauty of earth, is transported with the recollection of the true beauty; he would like to fly away, but he cannot; he is like a bird fluttering and looking upward and careless of the world below; and he is therefore thought to be mad. And I have shown this of all inspirations to be the noblest and highest and the offspring of the high est to him who has or shares in it, and that he who loves the beautiful is called a lover because he partakes of it. For, as has been already said, every soul of man has in the way of nature beheld true being; this was the condition of her passing into the form of man.But all souls do not easily recall the things of the other world; they may have seen them for a short time only, or they may have been unfortunate in their earthly lot, and, having had their hearts turned to unrighteousness through some corrupting influence, they may have lost the memory of the holy things which once they saw. Few only retain an adequate remembrance of them; and they, when they behold here any image of that other world, are rapt in amazement; but they are ignorant of what this rapture means, because they do not clearly perceive. For there is no light of justice or temperance or any of the higher ideas which are precious to souls in the earthly copies of them: they are seen through a glass dimly; and th ere are few who, going to the images, behold in them the realities, and these only with difficulty.There was a time when with the rest of the happy band they saw beauty shining in brightness-we philosophers following in the train of Zeus, others in company with other gods; and then we beheld the beatific vision and were initiated into a mystery which may be truly called most blessed, celebrated by us in our state of innocence, before we had any experience of evils to come, when we were admitted to the sight of apparitions innocent and simple and calm and happy, which we beheld shining impure light, pure ourselves and not yet enshrined in that living tomb which we carry about, now that we are imprisoned in the body, like an oyster in his shell. Let me linger over the memory of scenes which have passed away. But of beauty, I repeat again that we saw her there shining in company with the celestial forms; and coming to earth we find her here too, shining in clearness through the cleares t aperture of sense.For sight is the most piercing of our bodily senses; though not by that is wisdom seen; her loveliness would have been transporting if there had been a visible image of her, and the other ideas, if they had visible counterparts, would be equally lovely. But this is the privilege of beauty, that being the loveliest she is also the most palpable to sight. Now he who is not newly initiated or who has become corrupted, does not easily rise out of this world to the sight of true beauty in the other; he looks only at her earthly namesake, and instead of being awed at the sight of her, he is given over to pleasure, and like a brutish beast he rushes on to enjoy and beget; he consorts with wantonness, and is not afraid or ashamed of pursuing pleasure in violation of nature.But he whose initiation is recent, and who has been the spectator of many glories in the other world, is amazed when he sees any one having a godlike face or form, which is the expression of divine bea uty; and at first a shudder runs through him, and again the old awe steals over him; then looking upon the face of his beloved as of a god he reverences him, and if he were not afraid of being thought a downright madman, he would sacrifice to his beloved as to the image of a god; then while he gazes on him there is a sort of reaction, and the shudder passes into an unusual heat and perspiration; for, as he receives the effluence of beauty through the eyes, the wing moistens and he warms. And as he warms, the parts out of which the wing grew, and which had been hitherto closed and rigid, and had revented the wing from shooting forth, are melted, and as nourishment streams upon him, the lower end of the wings begins to swell and grow from the root upwards; and the growth extends under the whole soul-for once the whole was winged. During this process the whole soul is all in a state of ebullition and effervescence,-which may be compared to the irritation and uneasiness in the gums at t he time of cutting teeth,bubbles up, and has a feeling of uneasiness and tickling; but when in like manner the soul is beginning to grow wings, the beauty of the beloved meets her eye and she receives the sensible warm motion of particles which flow towards her, therefore called emotion (imeros), and is refreshed and warmed by them, and then she ceases from her pain with joy.But when she is parted from her beloved and her moisture fails, then the orifices of the passage out of which the wing shoots dry up and close, and intercept the germ of the wing; which, being shut up with the emotion, throbbing as with the pulsations of an artery, pricks the aperture which is nearest, until at length the entire soul is pierced and maddened and pained, and at the recollection of beauty is again delighted. And from both of them together the soul is oppressed at the strangeness of her condition, and is in a great strait and excitement, and in her madness can neither sleep by night nor abide in her place by day. And wherever she thinks that she will behold the beautiful one, thither in her desire she runs.And when she has seen him, and bathed herself in the waters of beauty, her constraint is loosened, and she is refreshed, and has no more pangs and pains; and this is the sweetest of all pleasures at the time, and is the reason why the soul of the lover will never forsake his beautiful one, whom he esteems above all; he has forgotten mother and brethren and companions, and he thinks nothing of the neglect and loss of his property; the rules and proprieties of life, on which he formerly prided himself, he now despises, and is ready to sleep like a servant, wherever he is allowed, as near as he can to his desired one, who is the object of his worship, and the physician who can alone assuage the greatness of his pain. And this state, my dear imaginary youth to whom I am talking, is by men called love, and among the gods has a name at which you, in your simplicity, may be incline d to mock; there are two lines in the apocryphal writings of Homer in which the name occurs. One of them is rather outrageous, and not altogether metrical. They are as follows: Mortals call him fluttering love, But the immortals call him winged one, Because the growing of wings is a necessity to him. You may believe this, but not unless you like. At any rate the loves of lovers and their causes are such as I have described.Now the lover who is taken to be the attendant of Zeus is better able to bear the winged god, and can endure a heavier burden; but the attendants and companions of Ares, when under the influence of love, if they fancy that they have been at all wronged, are ready to kill and put an end to themselves and their beloved. And he who follows in the train of any other god, while he is unspoiled and the impression lasts, honours and imitates him, as far as he is able; and after the manner of his god he behaves in his intercourse with his beloved and with the rest of the world during the first period of his earthly existence. Every one chooses his love from the ranks of beauty according to his character, and this he makes his god, and fashions and adorns as a sort of image which he is to fall down and worship.The followers of Zeus desire that their beloved should have a soul like him; and therefore they seek out some one of a philosophical and imperial nature, and when they have found him and loved him, they do all they can to confirm such a nature in him, and if they have no experience of such a disposition hitherto, they learn of any one who can teach them, and themselves follow in the same way. And they have the less difficulty in finding the nature of their own god in themselves, because they have been compelled to gaze intensely on him; their recollection clings to him, and they become possessed of him, and receive from him their character and disposition, so far as man can participate in God. The qualities of their god they attribute to the be loved, wherefore they love him all the more, and if, like the Bacchic Nymphs, they draw inspiration from Zeus, they pour out their own fountain upon him, wanting to make him as like as possible to their own god.But those who are the followers of Here seek a royal love, and when they have found him they do just the same with him; and in like manner the followers of Apollo, and of every other god walking in the ways of their god, seek a love who is to be made like him whom they serve, and when they have found him, they themselves imitate their god, and persuade their love to do the same, and educate him into the manner and nature of the god as far as they each can; for no feelings of envy or jealousy are entertained by them towards their beloved, but they do their utmost to create in him the greatest likeness of themselves and of the god whom they honour.Thus fair and blissful to the beloved is the desire of the inspired lover, and the initiation of which I speak into the mysteries of true love, if he be captured by the lover and their purpose is effected. Now the beloved is taken

Free Essays on Gay Marriage Should Be Denied

SAVAGE, TODD A., MARC E. FRISIELLO, and SHARON SCALES ROSTOSKY. "Gay Parents." International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. Ed. James J. Ponzetti, Jr. Vol. 2. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2003. 720-723. 4 vols. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Thomson Gale. Camden County College. 17 February 2005 . Document links: 4 PDF Pages | How to Cite eBook links: About this Publication | eTable of Contents | eBook Index | List of Illustrations Library links: Full Text: Page 720 GAY PARENTS Research has consistently demonstrated that heterosexual adults retain consistently and overwhelmingly negative attitudes toward lesbians and gay males. Heterosexual adults commonly view this negativity as acceptable despite political rhetoric lauding the contributions and multiple perspectives of an increasingly diverse citizenry (Kite and Whitley 1996). The stigma, prejudice, and discrimination directed at people who identify themselves as homosexual are not confined to individual acts, but have been institutionalized and systematically perpetuated throughout the various levels of the culture. For example, the U. S. legal system does not recognize unions between same-sex partners, nor does it protect relationships between lesbian and gay male parents and their children (Patterson, Fulcher, and Wainright 2000). Despite such obstacles, lesbian and gay male individuals successfully create meaningful family relationships that not only prosper, but thrive (Patterson 2000). Gay Relationships and Legal Matters Legal recognition of unions (i.e., marriage) between heterosexual males and females has a longstanding history in the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world influenced by Western cultures. Such recognition has set the standards for acceptable relationships and the benefits that they are believed to bring. One common benefit of marriage relates to the establishment of families and the rearing of c... Free Essays on Gay Marriage Should Be Denied Free Essays on Gay Marriage Should Be Denied SAVAGE, TODD A., MARC E. FRISIELLO, and SHARON SCALES ROSTOSKY. "Gay Parents." International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. Ed. James J. Ponzetti, Jr. Vol. 2. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2003. 720-723. 4 vols. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Thomson Gale. Camden County College. 17 February 2005 . Document links: 4 PDF Pages | How to Cite eBook links: About this Publication | eTable of Contents | eBook Index | List of Illustrations Library links: Full Text: Page 720 GAY PARENTS Research has consistently demonstrated that heterosexual adults retain consistently and overwhelmingly negative attitudes toward lesbians and gay males. Heterosexual adults commonly view this negativity as acceptable despite political rhetoric lauding the contributions and multiple perspectives of an increasingly diverse citizenry (Kite and Whitley 1996). The stigma, prejudice, and discrimination directed at people who identify themselves as homosexual are not confined to individual acts, but have been institutionalized and systematically perpetuated throughout the various levels of the culture. For example, the U. S. legal system does not recognize unions between same-sex partners, nor does it protect relationships between lesbian and gay male parents and their children (Patterson, Fulcher, and Wainright 2000). Despite such obstacles, lesbian and gay male individuals successfully create meaningful family relationships that not only prosper, but thrive (Patterson 2000). Gay Relationships and Legal Matters Legal recognition of unions (i.e., marriage) between heterosexual males and females has a longstanding history in the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world influenced by Western cultures. Such recognition has set the standards for acceptable relationships and the benefits that they are believed to bring. One common benefit of marriage relates to the establishment of families and the rearing of c...

Free Enterprise and the Role of Government in America

Free Enterprise and the Role of Government in America Americans often disagree about the appropriate role of government in the economy. This is demonstrated by the sometimes inconsistent approach to regulatory policy throughout American history. As  Christoper Conte and Albert Karr point out in their volume, Outline of the U.S. Economy, the American commitment to free markets continually endured since the dawn of the 21-century, even as  Americas capitalist  economy  remained a work in progress. History of Large Government The American belief in free enterprise does not and has not precluded a major role for government. Many times, Americans have depended on the government to break up or regulate companies that appeared to be developing so much power that they could defy market forces. In general, government grew larger and intervened more aggressively in the economy from the 1930s until the 1970s.   Citizens rely on the government to address matters the private economy overlooks in sectors ranging from education to protecting the environment. Despite their advocacy of market principles, Americans have used government at times in history to nurture new industries or even to protect American companies from competition. Shift Towards Less Government Intervention But economic hardships in the 1960s and 1970s left Americans skeptical about the ability of government to address many social and economic issues. Major social programs (including Social Security and Medicare, which, respectively, provide retirement income and health insurance for the elderly) survived this period of reconsideration. But the overall growth of the federal government slowed in the 1980s. A Flexible Service Economy The pragmatism and flexibility of Americans have resulted in an unusually dynamic economy. Change has been a constant in American economic history. As a result, the once agrarian country is far more urban today than it was 100, or even 50, years ago. Services have become increasingly important relative to traditional manufacturing. In some industries, mass production has given way to more specialized production that emphasizes product diversity and customization. Large corporations have merged, split up and reorganized in numerous ways. New industries and companies that did not exist at the midpoint of the 20th-century now play a major role in the nations economic life. Employers are becoming less paternalistic, and employees are expected to be more self-reliant. Increasingly, government and business leaders emphasize the importance of developing a highly skilled and flexible workforce in order to ensure the countrys future economic success.

Geography of Christmas

Geography of Christmas Every December 25, billions of people around the world gather together to celebrate the Christmas holiday. While many dedicate the occasion as the Christian tradition of the birth of Jesus, others commemorate the age-old customs of the pagans, the indigenous peoples of pre-Christian Europe. Still, others might carry on the celebration of Saturnalia, the feast of the Roman god of agriculture. And, the celebration of Saturnalia included the ancient Persian Feast of the Unconquered Sun on December 25th. Whatever the case, one can certainly encounter many different ways of celebrating the occasion. Through the centuries these local and universal traditions have gradually blended together to form our modern tradition of Christmas, arguably the first global holiday. Today, many cultures around the world celebrate Christmas with a wide variety of customs. In the United States, most of our traditions have been borrowed from Victorian England, which were themselves borrowed from other places, notably mainland Europe. In our current culture, many people may be familiar with the Nativity scene or maybe visiting Santa Claus at the local shopping mall, but these common traditions werent always with us. This compels us to ask some questions about the geography of Christmas: where did our holiday traditions come from and how did they come to be? The list of world Christmas traditions and symbols is long and varied. Many books and articles have been written about each one separately. In this article, three of the most common symbols are discussed: Christmas as the birth of Jesus Christ, Sa nta Claus, and the Christmas tree. Origin and Diffusion of Christmas Symbols Christmas was designated as the birth of Jesus in the fourth century CE. During this period, Christianity was just beginning to define itself and Christian feast days were integrated into the popular pagan traditions to ease the adoption of the new religious beliefs. Christianity diffused outward from this region through the work of evangelizers and missionaries and eventually, European colonization brought it to places all over the world. The cultures that adopted Christianity also adopted the celebration of Christmas. The legend of Santa Claus began with a Greek Bishop in fourth-century Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). There in the town of Myra, a young bishop, named Nicholas, gained a reputation for kindness and generosity by distributing his family fortune to the less fortunate. As one story goes, he stopped the sale of three young women into slavery by providing enough gold to make a marriage dowry for each of them. According to the story, he threw the gold through the window and it landed in a stocking drying by the fire. As time passed, the word spread of Bishop Nicholas generosity and children began hanging their stockings by the fire in hopes that the good bishop would pay them a visit. Bishop Nicholas died on December 6th, 343 CE. He was canonized as a saint a short time later and the feast day of Saint Nicholas is celebrated on the anniversary of his death. The Dutch pronunciation of Saint Nicholas is Sinter Klaas. When Dutch settlers came to the United States, the pronunciation became Anglicanized and changed to Santa Claus which remains with us today. Little is known about what Saint Nicholas looked like. Depictions of him often portrayed a tall, thin character in a hooded robe sporting a graying beard. In 1822, an American theological professor, Clement C. Moore, wrote a poem A Visit from Saint Nicholas (more popularly known as The Night Before Christmas). In the poem, he describes Saint Nick as a jolly elf with a round belly and a white beard. In 1881, an American cartoonist, Thomas Nast, drew a picture of Santa Claus using Moores description. His drawing gave us the modern-day image of Santa Claus. The origin of the Christmas tree can be found in Germany. In pre-Christian times, the pagans celebrated the Winter Solstice, often decorated with pine branches because they were always green (hence the term evergreen). The branches were often decorated with fruit, especially apples and nuts. The evolution of the evergreen tree into the modern Christmas tree begins with Saint Boniface, on a mission from a Britain (modern-day England) through the forests of Northern Europe. He was there to evangelize and convert the pagan peoples to Christianity. Accounts of the journey say that he intervened in the sacrifice of a child at the foot of an oak tree (oak trees are associated with the Norse god Thor). After stopping the sacrifice, he encouraged the people to instead gather around the evergreen tree and divert their attention away from bloody sacrifices to acts of giving and kindness. The people did so and the tradition of the Christmas tree was born. For centuries, it remained mostly a Ger man tradition. The widespread diffusion of the Christmas tree to areas outside of Germany didnt happen until Queen Victoria of England married Prince Albert of Germany. Albert moved to England and brought with him his German Christmas traditions. The idea of the Christmas tree became popular in Victorian England after an illustration of the Royal Family around their tree was published in 1848. The tradition then quickly spread to the United States along with many other English traditions. Conclusion Christmas is a historic holiday that blends ancient pagan customs with the more recent universal traditions of Christianity. It is also an interesting trip around the world, a geographic story that originated in many places, especially Persia and Rome. It gives us the account of three wise men from the orient visiting a newborn baby in Palestine, the recollection of good deeds by a Greek bishop living in Turkey, the fervent work of a British missionary traveling through Germany, a childrens poem by an American theologian, and the cartoons of a German-born artist living in the United States. All of this variety contributes to the festive nature of Christmas, which is what makes the holiday such an exciting occasion. Interestingly, when we pause to remember why we have these traditions, we have geography to thank for it.