Biosensors or enzyme electrodes

Biosensors or enzyme electrodes INTRODUCTION OF BIOSENSORS:- Biosensors or enzyme electrodes invariably refer to such devices that sence and analyze biological informations. A biosensor is a device that detects, records, and transmits information regarding a physiological change or the presence of various chemical or biological materials in the environment. More technically, a biosensor is a probe that integrates a biological component, such as a whole bacterium or a biological product (e.g., an enzyme or antibody) with an electronic component to yield a measurable signal. Biosensors, which come in a large variety of sizes and shapes, are used to monitor changes in environmental conditions. They can detect and measure concentrations of specific bacteria or hazardous chemicals; they can measure acidity levels (pH). In short, biosensors can use bacteria and detect them, too. PRINCIPALS OF BIOSENSORS:- A biosensor essentially comprise of the following two major parts 1- Biological component- For sensing the presence as well as concentration of analyte. In the presence of a certain molecule the biological system changes the environment. The measuring device sensitive to this change sends a signal. This signal can be converted into the measurement parameter. Often the biological system is an actual cell. The key thing to remember is that it is an actual organism that detects the concentration change of the molecule in the media. This organism could be the same one as the one in the media or it could be different. In either case it must be kept separate from the media. This can be done with a membrane that is permeable to the molecule that is being measured but impermeable to the cells and most other macromolecules in the reactor media. 2- Physical component:- Transducer:- A device that converts energy from one form into another e.g., telephone companies use transducers to convert sound energy into electrical energy to be carried long- distance through telephone lines and then another transducer at the receiving end to convert the electrical energy back into sound A biosensor is a sensing device that consists of a biological component coupled to a transducer that converts biochemical activity into, most commonly, electrical energy. Types of Biosensors:- There are different types of biosensors, which have different applications. These are listed below. Calorimetric biosensor Potentiometric biosensor Amperometric biosensors Optical biosensor Acoustic wave biosensors Calorimetric biosensor:- When the physical change is heat, released or absorbed by the reaction it is calorimetric biosensor. It measures the change in temperature in the solution containing analyte Separate thermistors measure the temperature of the solution before entry into the small packed bed column containing immobilized enzyme and also at the time of leaving the column. Calorimetric biosensors are most widely applicable and can be used to measure turbid and strongly coloured solutions. Maintenance of constant sample temperature is the disadvantage of this type. At the transducer surface, an electrical potential is produced due to changed distribution of electrons and this type of biosensors are called potentiometric biosensors. They use ion sensitive electrodes, commonly pH meter glass electrodes for cations, glass pH electrodes coated with a gas-selective membrane for CO2, NH3 or H2S or solid-state electrodes. These electrodes convert the biological reaction into electric signal. Potentiometric Biosensors At the transducer surface, an electrical potential is produced due to changed distribution of electrons and this type of biosensors are called potentiometric biosensors. They use ion sensitive electrodes, commonly pH meter glass electrodes for cations, glass pH electrodes coated with a gas-selective membrane for CO2, NH3 or H2S or solid-state electrodes. These electrodes convert the biological reaction into electric signal. Amperometric biosensors Amperometric biosensors sense the movement of electrons due to redox reactions. The simplest amperometric biosensors are Clark oxygen electrode that function by the production of a current when a potential is applied between two electrodes. The magnitude of current produced is proportional to the substrate concentration. Light, produced or absorbed during a reaction, is measure, by the optical biosensors in terms of change in fluorescence or absorbance caused by the products generated by catalytic reactions. This type of change occurs in catalytic biosensors. In affinity biosensors, change in the intrinsic optical properties of the biosensor surface due to loading of dielectric molecules like protein on it, is measured. A most promising optical biosensor utilizes luminescence due to firefly luciferase for detection of bacteria in food or clinical samples. The bacteria are specifically lysed to release ATP. This ATP is used by luciferase in the presence of O2 to produce light, which is measured by the biosensor. Optical Biosensor A most promising optical biosensor utilizes luminescence due to firefly luciferase for detection of bacteria in food or clinical samples. The bacteria are specifically lysed to release ATP. This ATP is used by luciferase in the presence of O2 to produce light, which is measured by the biosensor. Acoustic wave biosensors Acoustic wave biosensors sense the change in mass of the biological components as a result of the reaction. They are also called piezoelectric devices. The surface of the transducer is usually coated with antibodies which bind to the complementary antigen present in the sample solution. The resulting increase in mass reduces their frequency of vibration. This change in frequency is measured in terms of antigen present in the sample solution. Applications of Biosensor:- 1. Health Care Measurement of Metabolites The initial impetus for advancing sensor technology came from health care area, where it is now generally recognized that measurements of blood gases, ions and metabolites are often essential and allow a better estimation of the metabolic state of a patient. In intensive care units for example, patients frequently show rapid variations in biochemical levels that require an urgent remedial action. Also, in less severe patient handling, more successful treatment can be achieved by obtaining instant assays. At present, the list of the most commonly required instant analyses is not extensive. In practice, these assays are performed by analytical laboratories, where discrete samples are analyzed, frequently using the more traditional analytical techniques. Market Potential. There is an increasing demand for inexpensive and reliable sensors to allow not only routine monitoring in the central or satellite laboratory, but also analysis with greater patient contact, such as in the hospital ward, emergency rooms, and operating rooms. Ultimately, patients themselves should be able to use biosensors in the monitoring and control of some treatable condition, such as diabetes. It is probably true to say that the major biosensor market may be found where an immediate assay is required. If the cost of laboratory maintenance are counted with the direct analytical costs, then low-cost biosensor devices can be desirable in the whole spectrum of analytical applications from hospital to home. Diabetes. The classic and most widely explored example of closed-loop drugcontrol is probably to be found in the development of an artificial pancreas. Diabetic patients have a relative or absolute lack of insulin, a polypeptide hormone produced by the beta-cells of the pancreas, which is essential to the metabolism of a number of carbon sources. This deficiency causes various metabolic abnormalities, including higher than normal blood glucose levels. For such patients, insulin must be supplied externally. This has usually been achieved by subcutaneous injection, but fine control is difficult and hyperglycaemia cannot be totally avoided, or even hypoglycaemia is sometimes induced, causing impaired consciousness and the serious long-term complications to tissue associated with this intermittent low glucose condition. Insulin Therapy. Better methods for the treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes havebeen sought and infusion systems for continuous insulin delivery have been developed. However, regardless of the method of insulin therapy, its induction must be made in response to information on the current blood glucose levels in the patient. Three schemes are possible (Fig. 1.6), the first two dependent on discrete manual glucose measurement and the third a closed-loop system, where insulin delivery is controlled by the output of a glucose sensor which is integrated with the insulin infuser. In the former case, glucose has been estimated on finger-prick blood samples with a colorimetric test strip or more recently with an amperometric pen-size biosensor device by the patient themselves. Obviously these diagnostic kits must be easily portable, very simple to use and require the minimum of expert interpretation. However, even with the ability to monitor current glucose levels, intensive conventional insulin therapy requires multiple daily injections and is unable to anticipate future states between each application, where diet and exercise may require modification of the insulin dose. For example, it was shown that administration of glucose by subcutaneous injection, 60 min before a meal provides the best glucose/insulin management. Artificial Pancreas. The introduction of a closed-loop system, where integrated glucose measurements provide feedback control on a pre-programmed insulin administration based on habitual requirement, would therefore relieve the patient of frequent assay requirements and perhaps more desirably frequent injections. Ultimately, the closed-loop system becomes an artificial pancreas, where the glycaemic control is achieved through an implantable glucose sensor. Obviously, the requirements for this sensor are very different to those for the discrete measurement kits. As summarized in Table 1.4, the prolonged life-time and biocompatibility represent the major requirements. 2. Industrial Process Control Bioreactor Control. Real-time monitoring of carbon sources, dissolved gases,. in fermentation processes (Fig. 1.7a) could lead to optimization of the procedure giving increased yields at decreased materials cost. While real-time monitoring with feedback control involving automated systems does exist, currently only a few common variables are measured on-line (e.g. pH, temperature, CO2, O2)) which are often only indirectly related with the process under control. Seven requirements for an implantable glucose sensor. Linear in 0 20 mM range with 1 mM resolution Specific for glucose; not affected by changes in metabolite concentrations and ambient conditions Biocompatible Smallcauses minimal tissue damage during insertion and there is better patient acceptability for a small device External calibration and Response time Prolonged lifetime-at least several days, preferably weeks in use Three different methods of controlling a bioreactor are: Off-line distant: central laboratory coarse control with significant time lapse Off-line local: fine control with short time lapse On-line: real-time monitoring and control On-Line Control. Method 3 is most desirable, which allows the process to follow an ideal pre-programmed fermentation profile to give maximum output. However, many problems exist with on-line measurements including in situ sterilization, sensor life-time, sensor fouling, etc. Some of the problems can be overcome if the sensor is situated so that the sample is run to waste, but this causes a volume loss, which can be particularly critical with small volume fermentations. Off-Line Control. Although Method 3 may be the ultimate aim, considerable advantage can be gained in moving from Method 1 to Method 2 giving a rapid analysis and thus enabling finer control of the fermentation. The demands of the sensor are perhaps not as stringent in Method 2 as in Method 3. Benefits of Control. The benefits which are achievable with process-control technology are considerable: Improved product quality; reduction in rejection rate following manufacture Increased product yield; process tuned in real time to maintain optimum conditions throughout and not just for limited periods Increased tolerance in quality variation of some raw materials. These variations can be compensated in the process-control management Reduced reliance on human seventh sense to control process Improved plant performance-processing rate and line speed automated, so no unnecessary dead-time allocated to plant Optimized energy efficiency The use of biosensors in industrial process in general could facilitate plant automation, cut analysis costs and improve quality control of the product. 3. Military Applications Dip Stick Test. The requirement for rapid analysis can also be anticipated in military applications. The US army, for example, have looked at dipstick tests Summary of potential applications for biosensors Clinical diagnosis and biomedicine Farm, garden and veterinary analysis Process control: fermentation control and analysis food and drink production and analysis Microbiology: bacterial and viral analysis Pharmaceutical and drug analysis Industrial effluent control Pollution control and monitoring o Mining, industrial and toxic gases Military applications based on monoclonal antibodies. While these dipsticks are stable and highly specific (to Q-fever, nerve agents, yellow rain fungus, soman, etc.) they are frequently two-step analyses taking up to 20 min to run. Such a time lapse is not always suited to battlefield diagnostics; the resulting consequences are suggested in Fig. 1.7(c). A particularly promising approach to this unknown hazard detection seems to be via acetylcholine receptor systems. It has been calculated that with this biorecognition system, a matrix of 13-20 proteins are required to give 95% certainty of all toxin detection. 4. Environmental Monitoring Air and Water Monitoring. Another assay situation which may involve a considerable degree of the unknown is that of environmental monitoring. The primary measurement media here will be water or air, but the variety of target analytes is vast. At sites of potential pollution, such as in factory effluent, it would be desirable to install on-line real-time monitoring and alarm, targeted at specific analytes, but in many cases random or discrete monitoring of both target species or general hazardous compounds would be sufficient. The possible analytes include biological oxygen demand (BOD) which provides a good indication of pollution, atmospheric acidity, and river water pH, detergent, herbicides, and fertilizers (organophosphates, nitrates, etc.). The survey of market potential has identified the increasing significance of this area and this is now substantiated by a strong interest from industry. The potential applications of biosensors are summarized in Table 1.4. Tuning to Application. The potential for biosensor technology is enormous and is likely to revolutionize analysis and control of biological systems. It is possible therefore to identify very different analytical requirements and biosensor developments must be viewed under this constraint. It is often tempting to expect a single sensor targeted at a particular analyte, to be equally applicable to on-line closed-loop operation in a fermenter and pin-prick blood samples. In practice, however, the parallel development of several types of sensor, frequently employing very different measurement parameters is a more realistic. Advantages of biosensors over other measurement schemes They can measure nonpolar molecules that do not repond to most measurement devices. They are as specific as the immobilized system used in them. They allow rapid continuous control. Disadvantages of biosensors Heat sterilization is not possible as this would denature the biological part of the biosensor. The membrane that separates the reactor media from the immobilized cells of the sensor can become fouled by deposits. The cells in the biosensor can become intoxicated by other molecules that are capable of diffusing through the membrane Changes in the reactor broth (i.e., pH) can put chemical and mechanical stress on the biosensor that might eventually impair it. Future of Biosensors:- Biosensors have the potential to affect many areas. Field application areas including medicine, physical therapy, music, and the video game industry, can all benefit from the introduction of biosensors. Although biosensors are not limited to any group of people, they are particulary useful for the handicapped. Even completely paralyzed individuals have electrical activity in their bodies that can be detected. One biosensor application developed for the handicapped is an electronic instrument that produces music from bioelectric signals. Signal inputs such as eye movements, muscle tensions, and muscle relaxations are converted to MIDI (Musical Instrument Data Interface) and output to a synthesizer. Before being mapped to MIDI, the signals are analyzed for specific intensity and spectral characteristics for the particular individual. For dysfunctional or weak muscles the signals can be amplified according the the level of tension and relaxation. These signal inputs are then interpreted to control volume, pitch, tempo, and other aspects of musical composition. Medical applications are presently seen in the diagnosis and correction of eye disorders . Strabismus is a condition in which an individuals eyes are not aligned properly, and thus do not move in conjunction with one another. This can be corrected by surgery but the current use of prisms to determine the degree of correction necessary is not very accurate. Biosensors tracking the eye movements can determine with high accuracy the number of degrees in both the X and Y planes that the eyes need to be adjusted. Just as biosensors can be used to determine amounts of eye correction, they can also be used to train the eye as they can be an input device to video game exercises to realign eye tracking. This same method of muscle training through a video game could be used for rehabilitation of potentially any muscle group, as biosensors can be individually customized to detect levels of muscle activity for most muscle groups. In the same way that patients undergoing rehabilitation could use biosensors as an input device for their video exercises, the video game industry could use biosensors as yet another powerful input device for entertainment. Also contributing to physical therapy, biosensors can help to create custom exercise programs for injured patients and athletes, can be used by athletes to check muscle condition, and can be connected to a multitude of external monitoring devices. Some Future Goals :- There are future applications that make biosensors ideal input devices. Eye tracking devices that can focus and select objects in 3D virtual environments would couple sight and limb 3D selection creating powerful immersive environments. The laser abilities from the eyes of Superman could be realized by users in a virtual environment. Possible use of prosthetic limbs where just the bioelectric activity to the nerve endings of a missing limb could be used to control an artificial limb. In cases of paralysis, the nerves, prior to loss of transport ability, or brainwaves might be electrically monitored for instructions to control/move a mechanical device attached to the paralyzed limb. When brainwaves can be reliably monitored, we can study relationships between EEG (brain activity) and specific cognitive activities such as sleep behaviors and sleep states. Simple brain wave detection has been successful in early research stages, but breaking through the use of subvocal commands would be perhaps the most powerful input controller we have yet seen. Just picture monitoring brain activity so that when you think draw a circle, a circle appears on your monitor or in your virtual environment.

Hellen Nellie Mcclung: A Canadian Feminist :: essays research papers fc

Hellen Nellie McClung: A Canadian Feminist Helen "Nellie" Laetitia Mooney was born October 20, 1873 in a log cabin on Garafraxa Road, two kilometers from Chatsworth, Ontario. She and her family moved to Manitoba when she was six years old. One of Nellie's best influences was her mother. Her family's influence was no doubt the reason she became an activist. Her mother thought that every child had the right to an education, and her whole family encouraged her to learn all she could. (9, Wright) Nellie at age ten, went to school at Northfield School. This is where her education started. Nellie's dream was to be a teacher like her sister Hannah. Teaching was one of the few jobs open to women. She started her 'voyage' at age fifteen by passing the Second Class Teachers' Examination. She went on to earn a higher teaching certificate at Winnipeg Collegiate in 1893. She went on to teach at Hazel Public School near Manitou, Manitoba. We study Nellie McClung because she was an internationally celebrated feminist and social activist. Her success as a platform speaker was legendary. Her earliest success was achieved as a writer, and during her lengthy career she authored four novels, two novellas, three collections of short stories, a two- volume autobiography and various collections of speeches, articles and wartime writing, to a total of sixteen volumes. Two of her most famous books are: Clearing In The West and The Stream Runs Fast. All this served as a "pulpit" from which McClung could preach her gospel of feminist activism and social transformation. She was convinced that God's intention for creation was a "Fair Deal" for everyone; and that Canada, particularly the prairie West, was a perfect place to begin to bring that about. Women's suffrage, temperance and the ordination of women were keystones in the battle - engaged. In contrast to contemporary stereotypes, with a wit and compelling humor that won over enemies as it delighted her allies. Nellie was a curious girl, she was always asking questions. This was not commonly seen among girls in her time. As a small child she would want to participate in sports with the boys, although she was always told she wasn't allowed. "I was hoping there would be a race for girls under ten, or that girls might enter with the boys. But the whole question of girls competing in races was frowned on. Skirts would fly upward and legs would show! And it was not nice for little girls, or big ones either, to show their legs."(2, Wright) As many great philosophers do, Nellie would always ask: Why?

African American Contributions to American History Essay

Many blacks contributed to the success of our country in every war that we as a people have ever fought. In order to properly thank them for their heroic effort, I as a Hispanic Caucasian must give credit where credit is due. In order to properly do so, I must begin with the contributions of â€Å"Black America† beginning with the American Revolution and continue up until the World War II. Make no mistake blacks made contributions well past World War II, but in the interest of time and accuracy I must stay within the confines of our earlier history. One main aspect that should be analyzed is the fact that no matter how hard the struggle, blacks have always overcome adversity no matter what the cost. Of course, contributions made by blacks are not limited to war alone, but include a wide spectrum of achievements that have advanced civilization as a whole. My personal respect and thanks go to all people who have served and continue to serve this country at any capacity. But we must never forget the contributions made by our black brothers and sisters who gave their lives fighting for a cause that so greatly affected their lives as well as our well being. Charles Dickens said it best in his book A Tale of Two Cities, â€Å"It was the best of times it was the worst of times†. The American Revolution was a time of great struggle for people of all races. But, Blacks in particular understood the literal meaning of patriot rhetoric, eagerly took up the cause of American freedom, fighting bravely in the early confrontations with the British. Though the revolution freed some blacks and set the country on a course toward the abolition of slavery, political accommodation to plantation owners forestalled emancipation for many blacks in the south for 90 more years. A black man was one of the first martyrs of the patriot cause. Crispus Attucks, apparently a slave who had run away from his owner 20 years before, died in the Boston Massacre in 1770. Though facts were disputed at trials then as now, witnesses said Attucks hit a British officer with a large piece of firewood, grabbed a bayonet and urged the crowd to attack just before the British fired. Attucks and two others were killed while eight were wounded, two mortally. Blacks served at the battles of Lexington and Concord. Peter Salem, a freed slave, stood on the green at Lexington facing the British when the first battle broke out with the shot that was heard around the world. One of the last men wounded in the battle as the British escaped to Boston was Prince Estabrook, a black man from West Lexington. At least 20 blacks, including Peter Salem, were in the ranks two months later when the British attacked an American position outside Boston in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Salem has been honored for firing the shot that killed Major John Pitcairn, the British officer who led the Redcoats when they had attacked his small unit at Lexington. Unable to venture outside Boston and then threatened with cannon surrounding the city, the British left Boston for New York. As the war changed from a Massachusetts endeavor to a broader conflict throughout the colonies, the politics of race changed dramatically. Blacks had been welcomed in the New England militia, but Congress initially decided against having them in the Continental army. Congress needed support from the South if all the colonies were to win their independence from England. Since southern plantation owners wanted to keep their slaves, they were afraid to give guns to blacks. Congress ordered all blacks removed from the army, but black veterans appealed directly to George Washington, who took up their cause with John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress. Blacks serving in the army were allowed to stay, but new enlistments were forbidden. Though the Declaration of Independence declared that â€Å"all men were created equal,† many blacks soon saw more opportunity on the British side. The British governor of Virginia promised immediate freedom and wages to any slave who would join the Kings army. Hundreds flocked to the standard of the governor, Lord Dunmore, but he was denied a base on the land by the American forces and many of the blacks who joined him died of smallpox on overcrowded ships. The loyalty of blacks was a serious issue for the American leaders because blacks made up one-fifth of the two million people in the colonies. With the British soldiers already outnumbering the American troops, and recruitment difficult for the patriots, the northern colonies soon again began to enlist blacks. Rhode Island made up a regiment almost entirely of blacks. As the war continued, colonies as far south as Maryland and Virginia were recruiting free blacks for the American cause. As the war spread into the South, Congress found it needed to recruit slaves. It offered to pay South Carolina slave owners $1,000 for able-bodied male slaves. The slaves would receive no pay, but would be given $50 and their freedom at the end of the war if they served â€Å"well and faithfully. † The South Carolina Assembly threatened to leave the war, dooming the plan in the southernmost colonies. Recruitment of blacks to the American cause continued further north, but the patriots had less success than the British. The offer of immediate freedom extended by Virginia’s unfortunate loyalist governor was eventually made by the British throughout the colonies. Slaves joined the British by the tens of thousands. The fate of the loyalist blacks varied considerably. Some were captured by Americans and either returned to their masters or treated as war loot and sold back into slavery. Approximately 20,000 were with the British at the end of the war, taken to Canada or the Caribbean. Some became the founders of the British colony of Sierra Leone in West Africa. Even though the British offered slaves a better deal, many blacks served on the American side. They made up a sizeable share of the men in the Continental navy, state navies and the large force of American privateers. Blacks had long been in the labor force on ships and at seaports. On the water, then as now, skill counted for more than politics. The precise role of blacks in the revolution is difficult to quantify. Blacks in those days generally did not write. The people who did write early histories of the revolution were whites and concentrated on the efforts of white men. Also, many participants in the revolution were not specifically identified by race in the documents of the time and historians now have no way of knowing whether they were black. When blacks were allowed to serve in the American military, they often did work as laborers, sometimes in addition to regular soldier duties. Usually they were privates, though a few rose to command small groups of men. The words of the Declaration of Independence were taken literally by blacks and some whites. In, 1780, Pennsylvania became the first colony to pass a law phasing out slavery. Children born to slaves after that date were granted their freedom when they reached 28. Other northern states followed. The Superior Court of Massachusetts held in 1783 that slavery violated the state constitution, and New Hampshire also ended slavery by a court ruling. Vermont outlawed slavery and Connecticut and Rhode Island passed gradual emancipation laws. New York outlawed slavery in 1799 and New Jersey followed in 1804. The international slave trade was outlawed in 1808. Progress then came to a stop. A boom in cotton production spread the slave economy into the lower Mississippi Valley. Slave states were careful to control at least half the political power in the federal government, blocking any national movement against slavery until the Civil War. The 54th Massachusetts Regiment On January 1, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing the slaves in the rebelling territories of the confederacy and authorizing Black enlistment in the Union Army. Since the beginning of the Civil War, free Black people in general, and Black Bostonians in particular, were ready to gather arms on behalf of the Union, yet they were prevented from doing so. Popular racial stereotypes and institutional discrimination against Blacks in the military contributed to the prevailing myth that Black men lacked the intelligence and bravery necessary to serve their country. By the fall of 1862, however, the lack of White Union enlistment and confederate victories at Antietem forced the U. S. government to reconsider its racist policy. As Congress met in October to address the issue of Black enlistment, various troops of Black volunteers had already been organized, including the First South Carolina and the Kansas Colored Troops. It wasn’t until January 26, 1863; however, that secretary of war Edwin Stanton authorized the enlistment of Black troops. As a result, the 54th Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer infantry was founded, becoming the first all-Black Union regiment raised in the north. Training began for Black volunteers at Camp Meigs in Reedville, MA on February 21, 1863. Although some members of the community voiced opposition to the prevention of Black men from achieving the rank of colonel or officer, most community activists urged Black men to seize the opportunity to serve in the Union forces. The fear many Black volunteers had about the potential racism of White officers and colonels was calmed when Massachusetts Governor John Andrew assured Bostonians that White officers assigned to the 54th Regiment would be â€Å"young men of military experience, of firm anti-slavery principles, ambitious, superior to a vulgar contempt for color, and having faith in the capacity of colored men for military service. † Andrew held to his word, appointing 25-year-old Robert Gould Shaw as colonel and George P. Hallowell as Lieutenant. The son of wealthy abolitionists, Shaw had been educated in Europe and at Harvard before joining the seventh New York National Guard in 1861. In 1862, when Governor Andrew contacted Shaw’s father about the prospect of commissioning his son as colonel of the soon-to-be organized fifty-fourth, Shaw was an officer in the Second Massachusetts Infantry. Although reluctant to accept the commission, Shaw eventually became colonel. By the time training began at Camp Meigs, Shaw and his officers began work with the soldiers whose bravery would forever change public perception of Black military skill and valor. Black community leaders across the country such as Frederick Douglass and William Wells Brown served as recruiting agents for the Union army. As a result, over 1000 volunteers enlisted in the 54th Regiment, a response so overwhelming that Massachusetts organized a second Black regiment, the fifty-fifth. Men of the fifty-fourth represented twenty-four states, the District of Columbia, the West Indies, and Africa. Approximately 25% of them had been slaves, over 50% were literate, and, although as civilians they had worked in forty-six different occupations, the overwhelming majorities (55%) were common laborers. Regardless of origin, occupation, or social class, the men of the 54th Regiment both inspired Boston’s Black community and provided a symbol of pride for abolitionists across the country. Activists such as William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass visited Camp Meigs to show their support. Although the organization of the 54th Regiment resolved the conflict over Black enlistment in the Union army, the struggle of Black soldiers to gain respect in the military was just beginning. Upon arrival in the south, the Black soldiers were often treated as common laborers and the potential for their valor on the battlefield was disregarded. Upon arriving in Georgia on June 11, they were ordered by Col. James Montgomery of the Department of the South to raid the town of Darien. Reports of Black soldiers burning buildings and ravaging the homes of townspeople confirmed stereotypes of Black soldiers as un-trainable brutes. Col. Shaw found the raid on Darien barbarous and distasteful, and sent a letter to Brigadier General George C. Strong, requesting that the men be used in the planned attack on Fort Wagner, South Carolina. On July 16, the 54th Regiment fought alongside White soldiers of the 10th Connecticut Infantry in a skirmish on James Island, SC. This battle redeemed the Black soldiers’ fighting ability in the eyes of White skeptics, including General Strong, who commanded the 54th Regiment to lead the assault on Fort Wagner, scheduled for July 18. Strategically, a successful attack on Fort Wagner would allow Union forces to seize control of Charleston Harbor. Located on Morris Island, Fort Wagner protected Battery Gregg overlooking Fort Sumter. Thus, seizure of Fort Wagner was valuable because it enabled the Union to shell Sumter and close the harbor to confederate blockade runners, thereby paving the way for further Union attack on Charleston. Fort Wagner was located at the northern tip of Morris Island, and was controlled by 1700 troops and 17 artillery guns. Depleted to just over 600 men by the skirmish two days previous, the men of the 54th Regiment were ordered to lead the assault on Fort Wagner with the backing of regiments from New York, Connecticut, Maine, and Pennsylvania. Before the charge commenced, Colonel Shaw ordered the regiment to â€Å"prove yourselves as men. † Within 200 feet of the Fort, the confederates began to attack as the brave men of the 54th Regiment struggled through darkness, four-foot deep water, and marshland. Colonel Shaw, accompanied by dwindling numbers of dying men, managed to reach the top of the parapet where a bitter hand-to-hand combat ensued, the Black Union soldiers with bayonets against the White Confederate soldiers with handspikes and gun rammers. Colonel Shaw was mortally wounded with a pierce through the heart, along with a dozen of his men. Meanwhile, members of the 54th Regiment – some wounded, some dying – began to retreat; those who refused to back down were taken prisoner. As the smoke cleared, evidence of Confederate victory was immediately apparent, with 174 Rebel casualties and 1515 Union soldiers dead or wounded. Of the eleven regiments who participated in the Union assault, the fifty-forth Regiment accrued the most casualties, with 256 of their 600 men dead or wounded. Despite the heavy losses, the assault on Fort Wagner proved to the nation and the world the valor of Black soldiers in general and the men of the 54th Regiment in particular. From the ranks of the fifty-forth came stories of unfailing patriotism and undying glory. The men of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, their White officers, colonel, and allies, not only struck a blow for American freedom and unity, they also proved to the nation and the world the valor, bravery, and devotion of African American soldiers. In the sacrifice made by Col. Shaw and his soldiers, Americans witnessed, for the first time, the supremacy of equality over racism, discrimination, and ignorance. Upon his death at Fort Wagner, the body of Col. Shaw was placed in a mass grave on Morris Island along with the bodies of his soldiers. The lack of proper military burial for a man who had distinguished himself as a soldier and as a leader was intended to insult the honor of Shaw and his family, who were deemed as race traitors by Confederates and White unionists alike. However, upon learning that his son had been buried with his black soldiers, Francis Shaw stated, with dignity, that â€Å"We hold that a soldier’s most appropriate burial place is on the field where he has fallen. † This statement and the honor displayed by the Shaw family and veterans of the fifty-fourth helped immortalize Shaw and his men as symbols of the Civil War battle for unity and equality. As a result of the 54th Regiment, over 180,000 Black men enlisted under the Union flag between 1863 and 1865. AFRICAN AMERICAN MILITARY SERVICE from WWI through WWII. During the global conflicts of the first half of the 20th century, U. S. servicemen fought in Europe for the first time in the nation’s history. African Americans were among the troops committed to combat in World War I (WWI) and World War II (WWII), even though they and other black Americans were denied the full blessings of the freedom for which the United States had pledged to fight. Traditional racist views about the use of black troops in combat initially excluded African Americans from the early recruiting efforts and much of the actual combat in both wars. Nonetheless, large numbers of African Americans still volunteered to fight for their country in 1917-18 and 1940-45. Once again, many black servicemen hoped their military contribution and sacrifice would prove to their white countrymen that African Americans desired and deserved a fully participatory role in U. S. society. Unfortunately, the deeply entrenched negative racial attitudes prevalent among much of the white American population, including many of the nation’s top military and civilian leaders, made it very difficult for blacks to serve in the military establishment of this period. African-American servicemen suffered numerous indignities and received little respect from white troops and civilians alike. The historic contributions by blacks to the defense of the United States were usually ignored or downplayed, while combat failures similar to those of whites and violent racial incidents often provoked by whites were exaggerated into a condemnation of all African Americans. In the â€Å"Jim Crow† world of pre-1945 America, black servicemen confronted not only the hostility of enemies abroad but that of enemies at home. African-American soldiers and sailors had two formidable obstacles to deal with: discrimination and segregation. Yet, black servicemen in both world wars repeatedly demonstrated their bravery, loyalty, and ability in combat or in support of frontline troops. Oftentimes, they accomplished these tasks without proper training or adequate equipment. Poor communications and a lack of rapport with their white officers were two additional burdens hampering the effectiveness and efficiency of African Americans in the military. Too frequently, there was little or no recognition or gratitude for their accomplishments. One of the worst slights of both wars was the willingness of the white establishment to allow racism to influence the award of the prestigious Medal of Honor. Although several exceptionally heroic African Americans performed deeds worthy of this honor, not one received at the time the award that their bravery and self-sacrifice deserved. It took over 70 years for the United States to rectify this error for WWI and over 50 years for WWII. Despite the hardships and second-class status, their participation in both wars helped to transform many African-American veterans as well as helped to eventually change the United States. Though still limited by discrimination and segregation at home, their sojourn in Europe during WWI and WWII made many black servicemen aware that the racial attitudes so common among white Americans did not prevail everywhere else. The knowledge that skin color did not preclude dignity and respect made many black veterans unwilling to submit quietly to continuing racial discrimination once they returned to the United States. In addition, the growing importance of black votes beginning in the 1930s and 1940s forced the nation’s political and military leaders to pay more attention to African Americans’ demands, particularly in regard to the military. Although it was a tedious and frustrating process, one too often marked by cosmetic changes rather than real reform, by the end of WWII, the U. S. military establishment slowly began to make some headway against racial discrimination and segregation within its ranks. The stage was set for President Harry S Truman’s landmark executive order of 26 July 1948. Another main contribution of note would be the trails and tribulations of the Tuskegee Airmen. In the 1940’s, it was still believed that Blacks were incapable of flying aircraft. This myth was dispelled with the help of the U. S. Congress. On June 27, 1939 – THE CIVILIAN PILOT TRAINING ACT was passed. This solitary ACT helped to create a reserve of civilian pilots to be called in case of War. Young black pilots were given the opportunity to train with U. S. approved programs located at TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE. The SELECTIVE SERVICE ACT OF 1940 also increased the opportunity for a broader participation of Blacks in the military when it banned discrimination in the selection and training of all American citizens because of race and color. The success of the CIVILIAN PILOT TRAINING ACT helped put the 99TH PURSUIT SQUADRON OF TUSKEGEE on the map. It was said that â€Å"the success of Negro youth in the Army Air Force would be predicated upon the success of the ‘Tuskegee Experiment. ‘† HBO’s docudrama, THE TUSKEGEE AIRMEN, is a good depiction of this era of Black Americans seeking acceptance as military pilots. Because of the opportunity provided by the Civilian Pilot Training Act, the number of Blacks in the ARMY AIR FORCE jumped from 2,250 in 1941 to over 145,000 by 1944. The two major groups to see combat as AAF men were the 99TH PURSUIT SQUADRON and the 332ND FIGHTER GROUP. Out of the 332nd Group came the 100th, 301st, and 302nd Squadrons under the command of Lieutenant Colonel BENJAMIN O. DAVIS, SR. , who became America’s FIRST AFRICAN AMERICAN GENERAL on October 25, 1940. By 1944, the 99th was added to the 332nd and participated in campaigns in Sicily, Rome, and Romania. The 99th and 332nd earned many DISTINGUISHED UNIT CITATIONS. These historical examples are but a small sample of the many great contributions and sacrifices made by black people in order to secure freedom and prosperity for this great nation. We owe them a debt than can never be fully repaid. If anything these great contributions should curtail any negative or racial thoughts toward such a magnanimous people. You would think that with all that has transpired throughout history, that we as a people could live and coexist together with peace and harmony. My only hope is that with time people will come to realize that we are all not that different from one another and that we can thrive together for a better future for all of us.

Stanley Kubrick Essays - 1577 Words

quot;I would not think of quarreling with your interpretation nor offering any other, as I have found it always the best policy to allow the film to speak for itself.quot; As one of the most widely acclaimed and influential directors of the postwar era, Stanley Kubrick enjoyed a reputation and a standing unique among the filmmakers of his day. He had a brilliant career with relatively few films. An outsider, he worked beyond the confines of Hollywood, which he disliked, maintaining complete control of his projects and making movies according to his own ideas and time constraints. To him, filmmaking was a form of art and unlike Hollywood, not a business. Working in a vast range of styles from dark comedy to horror to crime†¦show more content†¦After this he filmed other documentaries, including his first color film The Seafarers. Kubrick, with the aid of friends and relatives, raised $13,000 to finance his first feature film, the war story Fear and Desire. The film was silent at first with the dialogue dubbed in later. It never made back its initial investment. Then in 1955, he directed his second feature film, the gangland melodrama Killer’s Kiss. This film was more successful and was sold to United Artists. In 1956, Kubrick directed his first studio picture, The Killing with a screenplay by Jim Thompson. This was his first artistic success and it brought him to the attention of MGM production head Dore Share. In 1957, Kubricks hot Paths of Glory, which was rejected by many studios until Kirk Douglas decided to star in the film. This led to a much-needed financing deal with United Artists. The film won considerable critical acclaim and promoted Kubrick’s reputation as a rising talent. In 1958, Marlon Brando hired him as director for his Western One Eyed Jacks. Kubrick resented Brando’s constant intervening in his work and he left the film forfeiting $100,000. In 1959, Kubrick became director of Spartacus. He took the job even though he had no influence on screenplay, production and distribution. Spartacus is Kubrick’s first commercial success. The most costly film produced at that time, with a budget of $12 million, it proved to be a major hit 4 and won several Oscars and a GoldenShow MoreRelatedBiography of Stanley Kubrick 1978 Words   |  8 PagesStanley Kubrick was born on July 26th, 1928, in New York. He was the son of a successful Manhattan physician and a Rumanian mother. Kubrick admitted to be a lonely child, and a misfit in high school. Growing up, his parents had wanted him to become a doctor he didnt have the grades needed to get into medical school. His love of film began at an early age, when he would go to movie theaters twice a week to view the double features. He would later say of this experience: One of the importantRead MoreStanley Kubrick Essay1863 Words   |  8 PagesStanley Kubrick is one of the most influential and daring filmmakers to ever put his mark on the silver screen. He has created a large body of very influential works spanning several decades and many genres. Throughout his whole collection there are many elements which are repeatedly used to enhance the viewers experience. There are al so many recurring themes in Kubricks works that are commented on both by the context in which they are brought forth and the techniques used to expound upon thoseRead MoreThe Films of Stanley Kubrick Essay2151 Words   |  9 PagesThe Films of Stanley Kubrick The films of director Stanley Kubrick divert from any categorized genre upon analysis. Instead they use themes that also expand into cinematic concepts due to certain construction processes used in the making of his films. This distinguishes Stanley Kubrick as a film Read MoreThe Paths Of Glory By Stanley Kubrick955 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Paths of Glory† is the critically acclaimed 1957 feature film, which was directed by Stanley Kubrick. The movie was produced by James B. Harris, and based on the book â€Å"Paths of Glory,† by Humphrey Cobb. Leading the cast were Kirk Douglas, Ralph Meeker, Adolphe Menjou, George Macready, Wayne Morris and Richard Anderson. It was released on Christmas Day. The movie begins with information about World War I beginning on August 3rd, 1914. The Germans invade France and nearly reach Paris. The FrenchRead More Analysis of The Shining, by Stanley Kubrick Essay4006 Words   |  17 Pagesprimary definition of horror as a painful and intense fear, dread, or dismay. It stands to reason then that horror fiction is fiction that elicits those emotions in the reader. An example of a horror film is The Shining, directed by Stanley Kubrick. Stanley Kubrick was a well-known director, producer, writer and cinematographer. His films comprised of unique, qualitative scenes that are still memorable but one iconic film in his collection of work is The Shining. Many would disagree and say thatRead MoreA Clockwork Orange, by Stanley Kubrick1139 Words   |  5 PagesIn this essay I will be exploring how the dystopian society in Stanley Kubrick’s 1971 film adaptation of Anthony Burgess’ 1963 novel, A Clockwork Orange has been used to explore c ontemporary anxieties. A Clockwork Orange takes place in an outlandish and dreary vision of future Britain governed by an oppressive, totalitarian super government. In this society, ordinary people have fallen into a dazed state of complacency, unaware of the sinister growth of a rampant, violent youth culture. AnthonyRead MoreEssay on The Auteur Theory: Stanley Kubrick1209 Words   |  5 Pagesquality thus exerting a personal creative vision and interjecting it into the his or her films. Kubrick made his first film in 1953 and has continued to make films till his death shortly after the film Eyes Wide Shut in 1999. With a film career spanning over four decades, he crafted consistent themes, and honed a highly personalized style which was woven into the films he made. Stanley Kubrick was a very stylistic film maker and paid great attention to detail in every aspect of his movies. OneRead MoreEssay on Stanley Kubrick: Artist, Explorer and Pioneer3777 Words   |  16 PagesStanley Kubrick: Artist, Explorer and Pioneer Introduction The line between art and entertainment has become malleable in the last century. Critics of fine art define its quality by its message, innovation and complexity. Both are founded on intent to communicate. Art seeks to engage the viewer and generally attempts to tap into more complicated and rarer emotions. (Krush Web Site) Stanley Kubrick uses the medium of film to convey an understanding of the world around him. I see his workRead More A Clockwork Orange, by Stanley Kubrick Essay example1522 Words   |  7 PagesA Clockwork Orange is a Stanley Kubrick film from 1971. Kubrick directed the film and wrote the screen play based on the 1962 novel from author Anthony Burgess. A Clockwork Orange was originally rated, â€Å"X† and nominated for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Film Editing and Best Screenplay, but lost in each category to William Friedkins The French Connection (filmsite.org). The set design is by John Barry, costume design by Milena Canonero, music by Wendy Car los and cinematography by John AlcottRead MoreReview Of Stanley Kubrick s 2001 : A Space Odyssey 1591 Words   |  7 PagesSpace or 2001. Stanley Kubrick’s legendary film â€Å"2001 : A Space Odyssey† (1968) is an epic of space exploration and meditation on the possibility of extraterrestrial influence on the process of human evolution. The film is set in the near future at a time when the moon is colonised and space travel, at least around the planetary system, is quite usual. Kubrick said â€Å"2001 aspired not to the condition of a science fiction novel but to that of music† ( Baxter,1997 :215) Kubrick gave this description